Revolusi Minda Dalam Sektor Pertanian

Pertanian atau dalam bahasa Inggeris agriculture adalah meliputi cucuk tanam, ternakan dan kebun buah-buahan. Terjemahan bahasa Inggerisnya, agri dari bahasa Latin ager, bermakna “a field” (iaitu sebidang tanah), dan culture dari bahasa Latin cultura, bermakna “cultivation” iaitu tillage of the soil. Secara literal, pembacaan dalam bahasa Inggeris menjadikannya : tillage of the soil of a field. Dalam pengunaan moden, perkataan agriculture meliputi semua aktiviti penting bagi proses pengeluaran makanan/makanan ternakan/fiber, termasuk tatacara untuk menternak dan memproses ternakan. “Agriculture” juga merupakan singkatan bagi pelajaran kaedah pertanian lebih dikenali sebagai sains pertanian (agricultural science).

Sejarah pertanian merupakan elemen utama dalam sejarah manusia kerana tahap peningkatan pertanian menjadi satu faktor penting dalam perubahan sosioekonomi secara global, termasuk peningkatan kekayaan dan ketenteraan yang jarang dilihat dalam kultur “hunter-gatherer” — dimana petani berupaya mengeluarkan makanan lebihi keperluan diri dan keluarganya, dan dengan itu sebahagian dari ahli puak/kaum/negeri/negara nya boleh melibatkan diri mereka dalam bidang lain daripada pertanian. Dianggar sebanyak 42% dari pekerja dunia adalah di dalam bidang pertanian, dengan itu ianya merupakan perkerjaan yang terbesar di dunia. Walaubagaimana pun, pengeluaran pertanian hanya menyumbang kepada kurang dari 5% Keluaran Dunia Kasar (Gross World Product) (iaitu aggregat kepada semua Keluaran Negara Kasar (Gross Domestic Product).

Sektor ini merupakan sesuatu bidang yang luas. Di satu sudut, ia melibatkan petani secara kecil-kecilan yang bertani dalam kawasan kecil dan mengeluarkan produk untuk diri dan keluarga sendiri. Di sudut lain pula, ia melibatkan pertanian secara komersil dan intensif. Pertanian secara komersial ini melibatkan tanah yang luas atau ternakan yang besar jumlahnya, memerlukan bahan yang banyak ( seperti benih, racun, baja, pekerja dan sebagainya) dan tahap kejenteraan yang tinggi bagi mengurangkan penggunaan pekerja. Operasi tersebut selalunya berkait rapat dengan operasi untuk memaksimakan keuntungan kewangan dari hasil jualan produk pengusaha tersebut. Proses ini turut melibatkan beberapa individu secara kumpulan, syarikat atau agensi kerajaan.

Pertanian moden meliputi lebih dari pengeluaran tradisional bagi makanan manusia dan makanan ternakan. Pengeluaran pertanian lain seperti bunga, hiasan, nurseri, landskap, ikan dan burung untuk perniagaan haiwan peliharaan, perhutanan, pembajaan, kulit, chemicals industri seperti kanji, gula, ethanol, alkohol, plastik, fiber, cotton, bulu, hemp, flax, bahan api (methane) dari biomass, biodiesel dan legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceutical, tobacco, cannabis, marijuana, opium, cocaine) adalah antara altenatif kepada pengusaha yang cenderung dalam sektor ini. Abad ke20-an merupakan pemangkin perubahan terbesar dalam pertanian, terutamanya dalam chemistry pertanian. Chemistry pertanian termasuklah applikasi baja chemical, chemical insecticides dan pest control, dan chemical fungicides, soil makeup, analisa produk pertanian, dan nutrition haiwan dan ternakan.

“Revolusi hijau” telah menyemarakkan perubahan kepada tatacara pertanian di seluruh dunia termasuklah hydroponics, plant breeding, hybridization, gene manipulation, pengurusan nutrien tanah, dan kawalan rumput rampai. Genetic engineering telah menghasilkan tanaman yang berciri tinggi yang melampaui tumbuhan semulajadi, seperti hasil yang tinggi dan tahap menghindar penyakit. Benih “modified” ini germinate faster, dan dengan itu boleh ditanam di kawasan yang lebih besar. Kejuruteraan genetik di atas tanaman telah menjadi kontroversial terutamanya dalam kes herbicide-resistant plants. Sementara itu, haiwan seperti kuda, keldai, lembu, kerbau, unta, llama, alpacas, dan anjing turut digunakan untuk membajak, menuai dan mengangkut produk pertanian ke pasaran. Animal husbandry tidak hanya melibatkan pembiakan dan penternakan haiwan untuk daging atau hasil sampingannya (seperti susu, telor, bulu) secara berterusan. Malah haiwan-haiwan ini juga dibiakkan untuk dijadikan binatang peliharaan (pet).

Kapalterbang, helikopter, lori, traktor dan jentera tuai telah digunakan dalam pertanian di barat untuk menyemai, menyembur racun serangga dan penyakit, penuaian dan penghantaran produk-produk yang tidak tahan lama. Radio dan televisyen telah digunakan untuk menyebar maklumat cuaca dan maklumat-maklumat lain seperti keadaan pasaran yang boleh melibatkan petani-petani. Komputer juga telah menjadi alatan penting bagi pengurusan ladang dan penggunaan internet telah meluas digunakan sebagai sumber ilmu, rujukan dan meminta pandangan, pendapat dan segala jenis bantuan dari petani lain. Menurut National Academy of Engineering di Amerika Syarikat, kejenteraan pertanian adalah satu daripada 20 pencapaian kejuruteraan terbesar dalam abad ke20an. Pada awal abad, seorang petani di Amerika Syarikat mampu menghasilkan makanan untuk 2.5 orang. Hari ini, dengan kegunaan  teknologi pertanian, seorang petani boleh menghasilkan makanan untuk 130 orang.  Meskipun begitu, proses itu dihasilkan dengan kos sampingan dari segi keperluan tenaga yang besar seperti petrol atau diesel untuk memastikan pengeluaran besar tersebut dapat dikekalkan. Disamping itu, peningkatan pengetahuan konsumer mengenai isu-isu pertanian secara tidak langsung telah menyebabkan berkembangnya community-supported agriculture, local food movement, “Slow Food” dan penanaman secara oganik (organic farming) pada masa kini.

 

Khasiat susu dan daging kambing.

Kambing atau nama saintifiknya Capra Aegagrus merupakan species mamalia yang dipelihara sebagai ternakan. Terdapat juga kambing liar yang tinggal di kawasan berbukit yang dikenali sebagai kambing gurun dan ia merupakan haiwan dilindungi. Kambing adalah haiwan pemakan daun atau maun. Makanan utamanya adalah rumput-rampai dan dedaun pokok. Seekor kambing dewasa memerlukan 4-5 kg rumput segar sehari. Penjagaan makanan amat perlu dititikberatkan. Ini kerana selain daripada aspek pencemaran habitat (persekitaran kandang), kebanyakan penyakit yang dihidapi oleh seseekor kambing adalah berpunca daripada pencemaran makanannya sendiri. Oleh itu, pemberian makanan yang seimbang perlulah difahami agar kesihatan dan kecergasan kambing dapat sentiasa dikekalkan. Jenis-jenis makanan yang boleh diberikan perlulah dirujuk terlebih dahulu dengan penternak yang telah sedia ada. Ini kerana makanan yang diberikan oleh setiap penternak dan kandang adalah berbeza.

Haiwan ini membiak dengan cara melahirkan anak dan menjaganya hingga dewasa. Penjagaan yang rapi serta betul perlulah diberikan sewaktu kambing ingin melahirkan anak. Tindak-tanduk kambing sewaktu melahirkan anak dan selepas melahirkan anak ada menunjukkan perbezaan. Namun terdapat juga ibu kambing yang kurang mahir menjaga anak yang baru dilahirkan kerana keletihan terutamanya bagi kambing bunting kali pertama. Kolestrum atau susu awal amat penting bagi anak kambing yang baru dilahirkan. Sekiranya ibu kambing mati, ibu kambing tumpang mesti disediakan bagi memastikan anak tersebut mendapat kolestrum. Jika proses penyediaan ibu tumpang tidak berjaya, peternak perlu berperanan lebih aktif  dengan memerah susu ibu tumpang untuk diisikan dalam botol susu lalu diberikan kepada anak kambing itu.

Al-Imam Malik menukilkan sebuah hadis dalam kitabnya al-Muwatta`; Rasulullah bersabda “Bukanlah daripada kalangan nabi melainkan dia itu seorang gembala kambing”. Lalu beliau ditanya “Dan Tuan juga wahai Rasulullah?” Jawabnya “Dan saya juga”.

Begitu juga Abu Hurairah r.a menukilkan sebuah hadis Rasulullah yang menyentuh tentang kambing: “Allah tidak mengutus seorang nabi kecuali dia itu seorang gembala kambing”. Maka para sahabatnya bertanya “Adakah Tuan juga?” Jawab beliau “Ya, aku pernah menggembala kambing dan bertanggungjawab ke atas  beberapa bahagian penduduk Mekah”.

Kedua-dua buah hadis ini membuktikan bahawa semua para Anbiya`adalah gembala kambing. Malah jika dirujuk kepada kitab-kitab kisah para Anbiya’, ternyata sekali ternakan kambing adalah salah satu sunnah dalam kehidupan  sekalian para ‘Anbiya seperti Nabi Syuib, Nabi Musa dan Nabi Muhammad. Dalam kitab Qasas al-Anbiya, Ibn Katsir menyatakan anak nabi Adam, Habil merupakan peternak kambing yang pertama di muka dunia. Ternyata haiwan ternakan itu adalah milik bapanya, Nabi Adam a.s.

Abu Hurairah juga meriwayatkan sabda Rasulullah “Asas kekufuran ada di arah matahari terbit, megah dan angkuh ada pada pemilik kuda dan unta, mereka yang bersuara nyaring (bising) ialah pemelihara haiwan berbulu (arnab, kucing) dan ketenangan itu ada pada gembala kambing”. (Hadis ini turut dinukilkan oleh al-Imam Malik dalam kitabnya al-Muwatta`).

Dalam sebuah mafhum hadis yang sanadnya disandarkan kepada Abu Said al-Khudri mengata bahawa Rasulullah pernah bersabda “Akan tiba suatu masa di mana kambing merupakan sebaik-baik harta bagi orang Islam. Orang Islam akan memeliharanya di puncak-puncak bukit dan di lembah-lembah, hidup terpencil dari masyarakat demi memelihara agama daripada ditimpa bencana”. Malah menurut Abdullah bin Mas’ud semasa beliau bertugas sebagai gembala kambing milik Utbah bin Mu’aith, susu kambing segar merupakan minuman kegemaran Rasulullah dan beliau meminumnya secara langsung setelah diperah dari tetek kambing betina. Secara tidak langsung, semua fakta ini menunjukkan betapa kambing itu merupakan satu kepentingan asasi dalam kehidupan manusia.

Selain tanduk dan kulitnya yang boleh dijadikan perhiasan, kambing juga merupakan sumber utama susu (white gold) yang berkhasiat dan daging yang berzat (red gold) jika dibandingkan dengan species ternakan lain seperti lembu, kerbau dan unta. Susu Kambing adalah makanan semulajadi berkhasiat yang diperlukan untuk kesihatan badan seharian. Ianya sesuai untuk semua lapisan umur. Susu ini boleh diminum panas atau sejuk malah boleh dibuat dadih, ais krim, keju dan mentega. Pada masa sekarang industri kosmetik mengeluarkan berbagai produk berasaskan susu kambing seperti syampu, krim muka, sabun, pewangi dan juga krim pencukur. Antara keistimewaannya ialah; mengandungi protein, enzim dan vitamin A yang baik untuk mata serta vitamin D yang sesuai untuk penguatan tulang, faktor anti-antritis (inflamasi sendi) dan anti barah, dapat mengubati demam kuning, penyakit kulit, gastrik, lelah (asma), insomnia dan ulcer. Ia juga mudah dihadam kerana zarah lemak lebih kecil. Malah susu kambing yang disimpan di tempat sejuk atau sejuk beku tidak akan berubah kualitinya.

Sementara daging kambing atau chevon (red gold) yang berzat lagi sedap dimakan dikenali sebagai “naturally occuring health meat” memiliki ciri-ciri berikut; kalori rendah, kadar lemak rendah nisbah lemak tidak tepu/ lemak tepu tinggi dan kandungan kolestrolnya rendah. Menurut kajian Dr.Peter J.D Adamo- daging kambing amat sesuai untuk darah jenis “O” , “B” dan “AB” yang dimiliki oleh seramai 75% rakyat Malaysia.  Sementara Dr.John R.Addrizzo pula menegaskan daging dan susunya mampu menghindari penyakit jantung dalam artikel beliau “Use of Goat Milk and Goat Meat as Therapeutic Aids in Cardiovascular Diseas”.

Antara Baka Kambing Terbaik, Terpilih dan Terbilang.

Peningkatan kadar import daging kambing di negara ini adalah berasaskan peningkatan permintaan daging. Mengikut statistic yang dilaporkan, pengeluaran dan permintaan daging kambing dari tahun 2002 sehingga tahun 2005 adalah sentiasa meningkat dan terus meningkat sehingga tahun 2010. (sila lihat rajah di bawah)

 

Tahun	2002	2003	2005	2010
Pengeluaran (ribu m.t)	1.21	1.30	1.50	2.18
Permintaan (ribu m.t)	15.10	15.60	16.80	21.30
Kadar saradiri (%)	8.01	8.33	8.93	10.23

 

Menyedari masalah kekurangan kambing ekoran permintaan daging yang sentiasa meningkat, peternakan kambing di kalangan bumiputera adalah amat digalakkan bagi mengurangkan kadar import daging kambing dari luar serta sekali gus dapat menghalang pengaliran wang ke luar negara dengan kadar yang amat banyak. Meskipun begitu penternakan kambing khususnya kambing baka bukannya merupakan suatu kerjaya yang boleh dilakukan secara sambil lewa sahaja. Ia memerlukan minat, semangat serta ketekunan seseorang peternak bagi menjamin usaha mulia ini akan berjaya.

 

Terdapat pelbagai jenis baka kambing. Antara yang tersohor dijadikan ternakan ialah kambing kacang (katjang), Jamnapari, Anglo Nubian, British Alpine, Saneen, Toggenburg dan Boer. Lazimnya kambing-kambing ini dikacuk bagi mendapatkan baka yang lebih baik, tahan lasak dan berdaya produktivi.

 

Kambing Kacang: merupakan baka asas yang perlu dipertingkatkan. Walaupun ianya kecil dan pendek, kambing Kacang (Katjang) amat tahan lasak. Mengikut kajian Jabatan Perkhidmatan Haiwan, hanya 40% kambing tempatan yang dilihat di kampung-kampung merupakan kambing Kacang (asli). Selebihnya adalah kambing kacukan dengan pelbagai baka yang dibawa masuk ke Malaysia. Selain dari saiz badannya, ia mempunyai tanduk yang melentur ke atas dan kebelakang. Telinganya tegak kesisi dan janggut terdapat pada kambing jantan dan jarang pada kambing betina. Dari pandangan sisi, mukanya kelihatan lurus dan tirus. Lehernya pendek dan bahagian belakang lebih tinggi dari bahu. Kulit badannya nipis tetapi berbulu kasar. Warna bulu biasanya hitam, coklat dan kadangkala terdapat tompok-tompok. Purata ketinggian 55-60 cm. Kadar kelahiran kembar adalah baik dan pengeluaran susu adalah sedikit ia itu 0.3 kg/hari (3 bulan pertama) dan 0.2 kg/hari (4-6 bulan). Berat lahir ialah 1.6 kg (Jantan) dan 1.8 kg (Betina) manakala berat dewasa , 25-30 kg (Jantan) dan 20-25 kg (Betina).

Jamnapari: Mengambil nama sempena sungai Jamna (Jamna par) di Uttar Pradesh , India dimana ia banyak terdapat. Kambing Jamnapari juga banyak terdapat di Agra, Mathura dan daerah Etawa di Uttar Pradesh , Bhind dan daerah Morena di Madhya Pradesh. Walau bagaimanapun dipercayai baka Jamnapari berdarah tulin (fullblood) *****a terdapat di 80 buah kampung di pinggiran Batpura dan Chakar Nagar di daerah Etawa. Jamnapari tulin (Fullblood) sudah menuju kepupusan dimana bancian 1972 mendapati Jamnapari Tulin terdapat kurang 5000 ekor di India dan kebanyakannya terdapat di kawasan Chakar Nagar (antara lurah Jamna dan Chambal).
Ia bersaiz besar dengan kepelbagaian warna bulu. Warna putih dengan sedikit (patches) warna gelap di kepala dan leher merupakan warna yang biasa kelihatan. Hidungnya amat cembung (highly convex nose line) dengan sekelompok bulu diatasnya. Mulut nya berbentuk ‘parrotmouth’ . Telinganya amat panjang (26.79cm) , berlipat dan jatuh kebawah. Kedua-dua jantina mempunyai tanduk (8.69cm). Ekor pendek dan kurus. Bulu yang tebal dan panjang di bahagian paha dan pinggul , dikenali sebagai ‘feathers’ merupakan ciri yang utama. Jamnapari juga dipanggil kambing dwi-guna kerana pengeluaran susunya yang baik selain daging. Labu susunya berkembang baik seperti baka-baka susu dengan puting susu yang besar.

 

British Alpine: Baka British Alpine dikembangkan di Great Britian pada awal 1900an. British Alpine merupakan binatang yang berbadan tinggi, ranggi dan berpenampilan anggun.. Telinga tegak dengan sedikit mengarah ke depan. Belakang lurus dengan sedikit tinggi dibahagian pinggul. Kakinya kuat dan lurus. Pengeluar susu yang baik , amat sesuai di negara beriklim sejuk dan tidak sesuai dipersekitaran yang mempunyai kelembapan udara yang tinggi. Species ini berwarna hitam dengan jalur putih dimuka. Bulunya pendek, halus dan berkilat. Kambing jantan selalunya mempunyai bulu yang lebih panjang.

Saneen: Saanen berasal dari Lembah Saanen di Switzerland dan merupakan baka kambing tenusu yang popular di Eropah. Kulitnya berwarna tan atau olive dan diliputi bulu putih atau krim yang halus & pendek (short fine white coat).Tompok hitam adakalanya terdapat dikulit telinga, hidung dan labu susu. Hidungnya lurus dan muka berbentuk segitiga. Telinganya sederhana dan tegak ke sebelah dan ke depan. Tanduk didapati pada jantan dan betina dengan kekacang dileher. Ekornya tipis dan pendek serta memiliki kaki yang lurus dan kuat. Berat lahir adalah 3.0 kg (Jantan) dan 3.3 kg (Betina) sementara berat dewasa 68-91 kg (Jantan) dan 36-63 (Betina). Tinggi yang ideal untuk Doe adalah 81 sm dengan berat lebih kurang 61 kg, manakala Buck, 94 sm dan berat 81 kg. Pengeluaran susu dibawah pengurusan yang baik di Malaysia boleh mencapai lebih 3 kg/hari (Purata 2 – hampir 5kg/hari) atau pun 500 kg – 1200 kg untuk tempoh laktasi 250 hari (purata 800 kg). Kandungan butterfat susu 3-4%.

Toggenburg: Toggenburg juga berasal dari Switzerland dan dipercayai baka kambing tenusu yang tertua diketahui. Ia dipercayai baka tenusu yang paling kecil (didalam kelasnya) tetapi padat. Namanya mengambil nama lembah Toggenburg di daerah Obertoggenburg, Switzerland.

Kambing susu ini amat popular selepas Saanen terutama sekali di Amerika Syarikat. Togs merupakan ternakan yang robust, aktif dan sentiasa bertenaga. Warnanya dari coklat kekuningan (light fawn) ke coklat gelap. Terdapat jalur putih dari mata ke muzzle, hujung telinga, lutut ke kaki serta belakang/pinggul (rump) dan ekor. Ketinggian yang ideal ialah 79 sm untuk Doe dan 90 sm untuk Buck. Ciri-ciri lain seperti berat lahir dan pengeluaran susu begitu menghampiri Saanen. Purata butterfat susu 3.7%.

Boer: Asal usul Boer tidak begitu jelas Namun ramai penyelidik mempercayai ia mempunyai gene pool dari pelbagai baka terutama kambing asli Afrika yang diternak oleh suku Namaqua Hottentots dan suku asli yang hidup berpindah randah dan tersohor dengan jolokan Southern Bantu. Boer bermaksud ‘farm’ atau ‘ladang’ dalam bahasa Belanda.

Kakinya pendek, tegap serta berisi. Paha dan bahagian belakangnya juga tegap dan berotot. Kambing Boer jantan mencapai berat 110-135 ketika matang manakala kambing betina 90-100 kg. Daging Boer terkenal keenakannya. Buat masa ini ia mendapat pasaran yang begitu tinggi di Amerika Syarikat terutama untuk kacukan Boer yang mempunyai 75% atau lebih darah Boer. Boer kini menjadi kegilaan pengusaha/penternak di Malaysia  selain daripada Peranakan Ettawah(PE).

 

 

 

 

Ketokohan al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal Dalam Ilmu Hadith

Al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbali merupakan nama seorang tokoh ilmuan Islam yang tidak asing bagi mereka yang mendalami bidang hadis. Nama penuhnya Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbali al-Syaibani. Berketurunan Arab kabilah Bani al-Najjar. Beliau dilahirkan di Baghdad pada tahun 164 Hijrah dan dibesarkan di kota itu. Ahmad juga tersohor dengan jolokan Abu Abdullah.

 

Sebagaimana al-Imam al-Syafie, Ahmad juga dibesarkan dalam keadaan yatim.  Selepas kematian bapanya, beliau menetap bersama ibunya dalam keadaan serba kekurangan. Namun hasil didikan ibunya semenjak kecil, beliau sanggup hidup berdikari tanpa mengharap sebarang bantuan  daripada mana-mana pihak.

 

Ahmad akan melakukan apa sahaja pekerjaan demi meringankan beban ibunya dan menyara hidupnya asalkan pekerjaan tersebut halal dan mulia disisi syarak. Beliau pernah belajar menenun kain dan menjual kain, mengambil upah menulis kitab-kitab syair Arab (Dawawin), mengutip hasil tanaman gandum dan barli selepas musim menuai dan menjual hasil tanaman tersebut di pasar. Bagi Ahmad pekerjaan sebegini adalah mulia walaupun dipandang hina untuk dilakukan oleh sesetengah masyarakat terutama mereka yang berketurunan bangsawan.

 

Beliau cintakan ilmu pengetahuan. Status kota Baghdad yang berperanan sebagai pusat sebaran ilmu pada masa itu menyemarakkan lagi semangatnya untuk menimba pengetahuan terutama sekali dalam bidang hadis dan fiqh.  Seperti mana imam-imam mazhab yang terdahulu, beliau memulakan alam pengajiannya dengan mempelajari dan menghafal al-Quran pada peringkat awal. Seterusnya beliau turut mempelajari bahasa Arab, fiqh, hadis, sirah nabawi, para sahabah dan juga para tabiin.

 

Mengikut catitan ahli sejarah, guru pertama Ahmad bin Hanbali ialah Abu Yusuf Yaakub bin Ibrahim. Beliau merupakan seorang pakar dalam fiqh mazhab Hanafi dan juga merupakan murid al-Imam Abu Hanifah yang paling kanan. Ketika bersama Abu Yusuf, Ahmad semakin memahami bahawa hadis nabi merupakan sumber hukum dalam permasalahan fiqh yang paling berauthoriti selepas al-Quran.

 

Susulan ini, dalam usia 15 tahun beliau memulakan pengajiannya  secara rasmi dalam ilmu hadis  daripada al-Syeikh Hashim bin Basyir bin Abu Hazim al-Wasithi selama 4 tahun. Dalam tempoh 4 tahun bersama al-Syeikh Hashim, beliau telah mencatit sebanyak tiga ribu buah hadis. Tidak memadai dengan apa yang ada, Ahmad sanggup mengembara jauh ke bumi Yaman, Kufah, Basrah, Madinah dan Mekah demi mencari para perawi hadis yang masih hidup.

 

Dalam tempoh pencarian tersebut, beliau melakukan apa sahaja pekerjaan untuk menyara kehidupannya  sebagaimana yang pernah dilakukan oleh beliau semasa masih kecil. Semuanya ini dilakukan demi menjayakan kariernya mengumpul hadis-hadis nabi. Usaha ini amat sukar dan memakan jangka masa yang panjang. Ini kerana para perawi tinggal di merata tempat dan beliau terpaksa mengembara dari satu negeri ke negeri yang lain  Bagi Ahmad, dapat menjumpai sebuah hadith dalam sehari sudah merupakan suatu kejayaan yang besar bagi dirinya. Lantaran kesungguhan dan ketekunan yang dimiliki, beliau digelar sebagai “Imam al-Muhadisin” yang bermaksud “ Imam bagi sekalian ulamak hadis”.

 

Dalam usaha  mengumpul hadis-hadis di Mekah, Ahmad bertemu dengan al-Imam al-Syafie. Beliau begitu kagum dengan keilmuan dan kepakaran yang dimiliki oleh al-Syafie . Sebelum pada itu Ahmad hanya mendengar ketokohan dan kehebatan al-Syafie melalui cerita dari mulut ke mulut sahaja.  Lantaran ini beliau berguru pula dengan al-Syafie dan menjadi murid al-Syafie yang paling kanan.

 

Demi menimba ilmu, beliau menetap di kota Mekah. Beliau juga kembali semula ke Baghdad semata-mata ingin mendampingi al-Syafie yang berhijrah ke Baghdad pada tahun 198 Hijrah. Pengajian Ahmad bersama al-Imam al-Syafie berakhir pada tahun 199 Hijrah setelah gurunya membuat keputusan untuk merantau ke negeri Mesir. Walaupun terpaksa berjauhan dengan guru yang paling dikagumi, kehidupan Ahmad tidak pernah lekang daripada suasana ilmiah. Beliau pernah mengatakan “Aku merupakan penuntut ilmu sehinggalah aku dimasukkan ke dalam lubang kubur”.

 

Kemantapan ilmu yang dikuasai oleh Ahmad bin Hanbal diakui sendiri oleh gurunya. Al-Syafie pernah mengata, “Aku telah keluar daripada kotaBaghdad dan aku tidak meninggalkan di kota itu insan yang lebih bertaqwa dan lebih faqih  daripada Ibn Hanbali”. Dalam bidang pengajian hadis, al-Syafie turut mengiktiraf kepakaran Ahmad bin Hanbali dengan katanya “ Kamu lebih mengetahui selok belok keilmuan hadis dan tentang para perawinya”. Antara murid-muridnya yang turut berkaliber dalam bidang hadis ialah AbdulRahman bin Mahdi, Abu Hatim al-Razi, Musa Ibn Harun, Baqiy bin Mukhlid al-Andalusi, Muhammad bin Ismail al-Bukhari dan juga Muslim bin al-Hajjaj al-Naisaburi.

 

Walaupun mempunyai keilmuan yang mantap, Ahmad bin Hanbali tidak pernah mengajar atau membuka kelas secara rasmi kecuali selepas beliau berumur 40 tahun. Kelas yang dianjurkan oleh beliau dibahagikan kepada dua; yang pertama merupakan kelas pengajian yang dibuka dirumah khusus untuk ahli keluarganya. Manakala kelas kedua pula dibuka khusus untuk orang awam dan dijalankan di masjid. 

 

Selain daripada membuka kelas pengajian, Ahmad bin Hanbal juga giat dalam bidang penulisan kitab. Antara kitab-kitab yang dihasilkan oleh  beliau ialah al-Musnad, al-Tafsir, al-Nasikh wa al-Mansukh, al-Muqaddam wa al-Muakhar fi Kitabillah, Jawabat al-Quran, Hadis Syu’bah, al-Manasik al-Kabir, al-Manasik al-Soghir,  kitab al-Solat (kitab kecil), kitab al-Sunnah, kitab al-wara’, kitab al-Zuhd, Masail al-Imam Ahmad dan Risalah al-Radd ala al-Jahmiah. Antara kitab-kitab tersebut, kitab al-Musnad lah yang merupakan sumber inspirasi Ahmad bin Hanbali.

 

Al-Musnad merupakan kitab himpunan hadis-hadis yang diusahakan oleh Ahmad sepanjang hidupnya. Kitab ini mengandungi sebanyak 750,000 hadis yang diriwayatkan oleh lebih 700 orang para sahabat Rasulullah. Ahmad amat teliti dalam usaha pengumpulan hadis. Segalanya dilakukan oleh beliau dengan penuh minat dan amanah. Oleh kerana hadis yang terkumpul terlalu banyak, anaknya Abdullah bin Ahmad turut membantu bapanya mencatit dan menyusun semula hadis-hadis tersebut.

 

Walau bagaimanapun Ahmad bin Hanbal meninggal dunia sebelum sempat al-Musnad disusun untuk dimanafaatkan oleh khalayak ramai.  Lantaran ini, usaha penyusun al-Musnad selepas itu disempurnakan oleh anaknya, Abdullah bin Ahmad bin Hanbal.

 

Dari segi pendirian politik pada masa itu, Ahmad mempunyai berbeza  daripada imam-imam sebelumnya yang tidak berpihak kepada mana-mana kerajaan monarchy. Beliau pernah mengatakan bahwa kepimpinan Islam pada masa itu harus dipilih daripada keturunan Quraisy. Beliau juga mengiktiraf pelantikan anak al-Abbas sebagai khalifah  menganggapnya sebagai “Bapa para Khulafa’”. Pengiktirafan yang dibuat ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa pendirian Ahmad bin Hanbal lebih cenderung kepada kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah.

 

Meskipun begitu, ini bukan bererti Ahmad bin Hanbal menyokong segala tindak-tanduk para khulafa’ Bani Abbasiyah. Malah beliau pernah ditangkap serta dipenjara oleh khalifah al-Mu’tasim ( salah seorang khulafa’ Bani Abbasiyah) yang begitu cenderung kepada mazhab al-Muktazilah yang mengatakan bahawa al-Quran merupakan sebuah kitab yang bersifat hadis (baru) sebagaimana makhluk-makhluk lain. Pandangan ini ditentang keras oleh Ahmad bin Hanbali dan menyifatkan pendapat al-Mukzilah sebagai suatu pendapat yang amat melampau dan menghina keEsaan Allah Taala. Bagi beliau al-Quran merupakan kalamullah yang bersifat qadim sebagaimana Allah Taala. Lantaran kedegilannya dalam mempertahankan hujjah, Ahmad bin Hanbali disebat dengan beberapa sebatan oleh Sulaiman al-Sajzi atas perintah khalifah al-Muktasim.

 

Dalam masalah pertumpahan darah yang berlaku antara pihak Ali bin Abu Talib dan Muawiyah bin Abu Sufian, Ahmad bin Hanbal memuji keberanian al-Zubair, Talhah dan AbdulRahman. Beliau juga menghukum kafir ke atas golongan yang menentang al-Khulafa’ al-Rasyidin  dan mencaci Aisyah Um-al-Mukminin. Namun dalam masa yang sama, Ahmad bin Hanbali tidak pernah mencela tindakan Muawiyah dalam peperangan Siffin dan al-Jamal. Baginya peperangan antara kedua-dua belah adalah berasaskan kepada ijtihad pihak masing-masing. Menurut beliau, “Bukan semua ijtihad mujtahid yang dibuat itu betul. Bagi yang betul mendapat dua ganjaran, manakala bagi yang salah akan dapat satu ganjaran sahaja”.

 

Sebagai seorang ilmuan Islam yang warak dan bertaqwa kepada Allah, beliau tidak pernah lekang daripada membaca al-Quran dan menghayati segala inti kandungan al-Quran dengan penuh rasa rendah diri. Menurut anaknya, Abdullah yang juga merupakan seorang pencatat hadis; bapanya biasa mengkhatam bacaan al-Quran sebanyak dua kali setiap minggu. Sekali pada waktu malam dan sekali lagi beliau mengkhatamkan bacaannya pada waktu siang. Bapanya  juga menunaikan solat qiam al-lail sebanyak tiga ratus rakaat dan mengurangkan jumlah rakaat tersebut kepada 150 rakaat setelah usianya semakin meningkat tua.

 

Dalam usia 77 tahun, beliau jatuh sakit uzur tua. Keuzuran yang dialaminya berlarutan selama 9 hari.  Akhirnya al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbali kembali ke rahmatullah pada  hari Jumaat 12 hb. Rabiul-Awal tahun 241 Hijrah. Jenazah beliau dikebumikan dibumi Baghdad di mana ia merupakan medan ilmu yang pertama dan terakhir buat diri al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbali.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Al-Imam al-Syafie- Mujaddid ke-2 Dalam Islam

Al-Imam al-Syafie atau sebenarnya Abu Abdul Muhammad bin Idris bin al-Abbas bin Othman bin Syafi’ bin al-Saib merupakan anak murid kepada al-Imam Malik yang paling masyhur. Beliau berketurunan Quraisy. Dilahirkan pada tahun 150H di Ghazzah, Palestin dan dibesarkan di situ.  Selepas kematian bapanya,  beliau  tinggal bersama ibunya dalam keadaan amat miskin di Ghazzah. Meskipun berada dalam kehidupan susah, namun ia bukan merupakan batu penghalang baginya untuk menimba ilmu pengetahuan. Berbekalkan kecekalan hati dan semangat yang berkobar diiringi pula dengan doa ibunya, beliau berjaya mencapai apa yang dicita.

 

Al-Syafie memulakan kariernya sebagai penuntut ilmu di Ghazzah. Pada peringkat permulaan ini beliau belajar al-Quran daripada ibunya sendiri serta menghafal kesemua  ayat-ayat al-Quran yang dipelajarinya. Setelah berumur lebih kurang sepuluh tahun, beliau dibawa oleh ibunya berpindah ke Mekah. Di Mekah semangat beliau untuk belajar semakin berkobar apabila dia mendapat tahu bahawa kota Mekah dihuni oleh para ulamak muktabar.

 

Pada peringkat awal di Mekah, beliau memulakan pengajian dengan menghafal hadis-hadis nabi sahaja. Disamping itu, beliau juga memimjam kitab al-Muwatta karangan al-Imam Malik daripada seorang lelaki di kota Mekah dan menghafalnya. Dengan daya ingatan yang tajam, beliau dapat menghafal dan mengingati keseluruhan isi kandungan al-Muwatta’ dalam tempoh sembilan malam sahaja.

 

Dalam proses menghafal hadis-hadis tersebut, banyak hadis-hadis yang berkaitan dengan ilmu  ditemui beliau.  Penemuan hadis-hadis dalam bab fiqh ini, timbul pula keinginan untuk menimba ilmu fiqh.  Tidak cukup dengan apa yang dimiliki, beliau mula menceburi bidang fiqh dan berdamping dengan beberapa ulamak terkemuka di Mekah seperti  Muslim Ibn Khalid al-Zinji dan Sufian Ibn ‘Unaiyah. Dalam tempoh perdampingannya dengan para ulama fiqh di kota Mekah, beliau mengambil kesempatan mempelajari fiqh Ahl-Ra’y dan juga fiqh Ahl- Hadis serta mengumpulkan segala data ilmiah yang berkaitan dengan kedua-dua mazhab fiqh tersebut.  Menurut al-Syeikh Abu Zahrah, “ Sesungguhnya al-Syafie telah mengumpul ilmu fiqh Ahl-Ra’y dan ilmu fiqh Ahl-al-Hadis dengan kadar yang seimbang”.

 

Selain ilmu fiqh dan hadis, al-Syafie juga meminati bidang kesusasteraan Arab. Lantaran minatnya ini, beliau  menjaga lidahnya agar sentiasa bertutur dengan menggunakan bahasa Arab baku. Disamping itu, beliau juga mendampingi kabilah Huzail yang merupakan kabilah Arab yang paling fasih dan paling menguasai syair-syair dikalangan kabilah-kabilah Arab.  Dalam tempoh ini, al-Syafie sempat juga belajar memanah sehingga berjaya meletakkan dirinya sebaris dengan pemanah-pemanah handalan pada masa itu. 

 

Setelah umurnya meningkat 20 tahun, beliau mengambil keputusan  menuju ke Madinah untuk menimba ilmu secara bersemuka dengan al-Imam Malik, pengarang kitab al-Muwatta’ yang dihafalnya sebelum ini. Kehadirannya di Madinah untuk belajar disambut baik oleh al-Imam Malik. Dalam pertemuan kali pertamanya dengan al-Imam Malik, al-Syafie pernah menceritakan “ Aku tidak pernah merasa hebat serta kagum  terhadap seseorang sebagaimana rasa hebat dan kagumku terhadap al-Imam Malik”.

 

Di Madinah, beliau  setia sebagai murid al-Imam Malik selama 9 tahun sehinggalah gurunya ini meninggal dunia. Sebagai seorang ilmuan yang sentiasa merendah diri serta bijak membahagikan masa, beliau sering mengisi masa lapangnya dengan menziarahi dan bergaul dengan kabilah-kabilah Arab lain di padang pasir. 

 

Setelah al-Imam Malik meninggal dunia, al-Syafie kembali semula ke kota Mekah. Disebabkan kesempitan hidup yang dialaminya, beliau berusaha mencari pekerjaan untuk menyara hidupnya. Akhirnya beliau diterima bekerja sebagai seorang pegawai kerajaan di Najran. Di Najran, beliau bergaul dengan pelbagai lapisan masyarakat termasuklah golongan Syiah yang sentiasa mengkritik pemerintahan kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah. Ekoran ini beliau telah dituduh menyertai dan menyokong golongan pemberontak.

 

Akibatnya, al-Syafie telah dibawa mengadap khalifah Harun al-Rasyid.  Dengan mengemukakan hujjah yang kukuh, akhirnya beliau didapati tidak bersalah dan dibebaskan. Dalam proses pengadilan ini juga beliau bertemu dengan Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan (murid al-Imam Abu Hanifah dan al-Imam Malik) selaku hakim Baghdad pada masa itu. Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan merupakan rakan sepengajian beliau semasa sama-sama berguru dengan al-Imam Malik.

 

Atas dasar simpati ke atas bekas rakan sepengajiannya, Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan memohon daripada khalifah Harun al-Rasyid untuk menjamin al-Syafie serta membenarkan beliau menetap dirumahnya. Dalam tempoh sebagai orang jaminan di rumah Muhammad Ibn Hasan, beliau berkesempatan mempelajari fiqh aliran ahl ra’y daripada tokoh berkenaan. Dengan kata lain, peluang beliau berdamping dengan Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan secara tidak langsung dapat menambah satu lagi kaedah fiqh selain daripada kaedah fiqh yang pernah dipelajari daripada al-Imam Malik. Setelah lebih kurang tiga tahun berada di Baghdad, beliau kemudiannya kembali semula ke Mekah.

 

Terdapat banyak perbezaan serta perselisihan pendapat antara kedua-dua mazhab fiqh yang dipelajari.  Namun dengan kecerdikan dan keilmuan yang ada, beliau mengkaji pendapat-pendapat tersebut serta mengolahnya kembali dan membentuk kaedahnya sendiri yang dikenali sebagai Usul-al-Fiqh.

 

Setelah sembilan tahun mengajar di Mekah, beliau merasakan penemuan terbaru ini perlu disebarkan demi kepentingan umat Islam.  Dengan ini, pada tahun 195 Hijrah beliau memilih Baghdad sebagai pengkalan ilmu dan mengambil langkah untuk  menuju ke kota tersebut sekali lagi. Di Baghdad, kelas pengajian yang dianjurkan oleh beliau begitu mendapat sambutan ramai termasuklah daripada kalangan ulamak. Antara tokoh yang sering mengikut pengajaran beliau ialah al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal dan Ishak bin Rawahaih, Daud al-Zahiri, Abu Tsaur, Ibn Jabir al-Tabari, Abu Yaakub Yusuf Ibn Yahya al-Buaiti, Abu Ibrahim Ismail Ibn Yahya al-Madani, al-Hasan Ibn Muhammad al-Za’farani, al-Rabiah bin Sulaiman bin Abdul Jabbar  al-Muradi  dan lain-lain lagi.

 

Lantaran kebijaksanaan yang dimiliki, muridnya al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal menyifat serta mengiktiraf al-Syafie sebagai seorang Mujaddid kurun ke-2. Pengiktirafan ini berdasarkan kepada sebuah hadis Nabi “ Sesungguhnya Allah akan membangkitkan pada awal setiap seratus tahun seorang mujaddid yang akan membuat pembaharuan dalam urusan agama”. Dalam pada itu, al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbali juga turut berpendapat bahawa khalifah Umar bin Abdul Aziz merupakan seorang mujaddid pertama.

 

Dalam usaha menguasai ilmu hadis, Ahmad bin Hanbali pernah mengatakan “Aku tidak mengetahui tentang nasikh dan mansukh hadis ( masalah pemansukhan hadis) sehinggalah aku berdamping dengan al-Imam al-Syafie”.

 

Menurut muridnya, al-Rabiah bin Sulaiman “Al-Imam sentiasa mengetuai majlis ilmu di masjid ( Jami’ Amr ). Apabila beliau menunai solat subuh akan datanglah kepada beliau  ahli al-Quran. Setelah terbit matahari, mereka (ahli al-Quran akan beredar dan muncul pula ahl al-hadis bertanya kepada beliau tentang tafsir dan makna-makna hadis tersebut sehingga  masuk waktu dhuha. Setelah gelincir waktu dhuha, datang pula kepada beliau ahli dalam bidang bahasa Arab( Nahu), Arudh dan syair. Mereka akan berdamping dengan al-Imam al-Syafie sehinggalah masuk waktu tengahari”.

 

Selepas beberapa tahun berada di Baghdad,  pada tahun 199 Hijrah al-Syafie mengambil keputusan untuk mengembara dan menetap di Mesir.  Di Mesir beliau berpeluang  mengajar dan mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan sehinggalah beliau meninggal dunia di sana pada tahun 204 Hijrah dalam usia 54 tahun.

 

Sebagai seorang ilmuan agung, beliau turut menghabiskan sisa-sisa umurnya semasa berada di Baghdad dan di Mesir dengan mengarang kitab. Menurut Yaqut al-Hamawi  seorang ahli kaji sejarah, Sepanjang hayat beliau, selain daripada kitab al-Umm dan kitab al-Risalah, al-Imam al-Syafie sempat menulis  sebanyak 174 kitab (risalah kecil) dengan pelbagai tajuk perbincangan dalam permasalahan fiqh.  Pengorbanan beliau dalam bidang ilmu amat disanjungi. Hasil khazanah ilmiahnya menjadi bahan rujukan para pelajar dan intelektual Islam  hingga kini.

 

 

 

 

             

 

 

             

 

 

           

 

           

Al-Imam Malik: Pengasas Mazhab al-Hadith

Al-Imam Malik atau lebih dikenali dengan jolokan Imam Ahl al-Hadith merupakan pengasas mazhab Ahl al-Hadith yang dikenali sebagai mazhab Maliki. Nama sebenarnya ialah Abu Abdullah Malik bin Anas bin Malik bin Amir Al-Asbahi. Beliau dilahirkan pada tahun 93 Hijrah di Madinah dan dibesarkan di situ.

 

Malik berketurunan hartawan. Datuknya, Malik bin Amir al-Asbahi  merupakan seorang ahli perniagaan terkemuka di kota Mekah yang telah membawa ahli keluarganya berpindah dan menetap di Madinah. Dalam pada itu, Malik bin Amir juga diiktiraf sebagai salah seorang tokoh tabiin yang sempat meriwayatkan hadis daripada Umar al-Khattab, Othman bin Affan, Talhah bin Ubaidillah dan juga Aisyah Um al-Mukminin.

 

Malik dibesarkan dalam suasana keluarga yang  cintakan ilmu pengetahuan. Selain daripada berketurunan perawi hadis, status kota Madinah yang terkenal sebagai pusat  ilmu juga menjadi factor utama bagi ahli keluarga Malik untuk menguasai ilmu hadis dan fiqh melalui para fuqaha dan muhaddisin yang terkenal seperti Rabiah Ibn Abdul Rahman dan Ibn Syahan al-Zuhri.

 

Meskipun dibesarkan dalam suasana keluarga yang cintakan ilmu, namun pada awalnya kecenderungan Malik tidak sebagaimana ahli keluarganya yang lain. Pada usia meningkat remaja, beliau bercita-cita untuk menjadi seorang penyanyi. Saban hari beliau berusaha meningkatkan mutu suaranya dengan lagu-lagu yang biasa dinyanyikan  oleh biduan-biduan Arab pada masa itu.

 

Menyedari hal ini, Ibunya berusaha mengalih perhatian serta minatnya dari bidang nyanyian ke arah bidang fiqh. Dalam usaha tersebut, si ibu sentiasa menasihati anak  dan mengatakan bahawa rupa paras dan penampilan Malik amat hodoh dan orang ramai tidak akan mendengar  sebarang nyanyian yang didendangkan oleh seorang penyanyi yang hodoh dan tidak memiliki penampilan yang menarik. Hasil nasihat dan desakan, akhirnya Malik mengalah dan akur dengan permintaan ibunya.

 

Menurut ahli sejarah, rupa paras dan penampilan Malik sebenarnya bukanlah hodoh, bahkan amat menarik  Beliau memiliki tubuh yang segak dan berkulit putih kuning kemerah-merahan. Kenyataan yang dibuat oleh ibunya hanyalah suatu helah dan alasan agar  Malik berubah sikap dan menyertai ahli keluarganya yang giat menimba ilmu pengetahuan.

 

Malik memulakan pengajiannya dengan menghafal al-Quran.  Di peringkat ini, beliau mulai mendampingi para fuqaha kota Madinah seperti Ibn Syahab al-Zuhri dan Rabiah Ibn AbdulRahman  yang terkenal dengan gelaran Rabiah al-Ra’y atau Ibn AbdulRahman al-Quru’. Antara guru yang paling lama didampingi oleh Malik ialah AbdulRahman Ibn Hurmuz, iaitu selama tempoh 13 tahun. Ibn Hurmuz merupakan seorang pakar dalam bidang pengajian al-Quran dan ilmu hadis.

 

Di peringkat seterusnya beliau mempelajari ilmu hadis dan fatwa para sahabat. Malik memiliki otak yang cergas serta daya ingatan yang kuat. Beliau mampu menghafal sebanyak 30 hadis nabi yang didengari dalam masa yang singkat. Pada tahap ini juga beliau mendampingi para fuqaha ternama yang lain seperti Nafi’ bin Abu Naim dan Nafi’ Maula Abdullah bin Umar.

 

Manakala dalam bidang fiqh, beliau bukan sahaja mempelajari fiqh para sahabat dan tabiin, bahkan beliau juga turut mendalami fiqh Ahl-Ra’y mazhab Hanafi) daripada Yahya Ibn Said dan Rabiah al-Ra’y. Malik tidak sebagaimana imam-imam mazhab lain seperti Abu Hanifah dan al-Syafie yang suka merantau kerana menuntut ilmu. Beliau tidak pernah meninggalkan bumi Madinah kecuali sekali sahaja dalam hidup kerana menunaikan fardhu haji di Mekah

 

Setelah merasai kemampatan ilmu dan menerima pengiktirafan serta nasihat daripada majority para ulamak kota Madinah, Malik memulakan kariernya sebagai guru dengan membuka kelas di Masjid Nabawi.  Dalam mengutarakan methodology pendidikan, Malik membahagikan sessi mengajarnya kepada dua kelas; iaitu kelas pengajian hadis dan satu lagi kelas pengajian fatwa yang diatur rapi.

 

Malik merupakan seorang guru yang amat menghormati majlis ilmu.  Sebelum mengajar, beliau biasanya terlebih dahulu mengambil wudhuk.   Kemudian  dia duduk di atas hamparan  dengan penuh hemah dan bersemangat sambil mengusap-usap janggutnya. Selepas itu barulah  beliau  mula mengajar. Ketika ditanya “ Kenapa tuan sentiasa mengambil wudhuk sebelum mengajar?”. Dengan selamba beliau menjawab “ Aku amat kagum dan menghormati hadis-hadis nabi dan aku tidak akan membicara atau menyebut hadis-hadisnya kecuali diriku dalam keadaan suci berwudhuk”.

 

Sebagaimana Abu Hanifah, Malik sempat hidup dalam dua zaman pemerintahan, iaitu zaman kerajaan Bani Umaiyah dan Bani Abbasiyah. Meskipun begitu, beliau hanya mengambil sikap berkecuali dan tidak berpihak kepada mana-mana pihak.  Bagi Malik kedua-dua system pemerintahan beraja ini (system monarchy) merupakan sytem yang amat menyimpang jauh daripada tuntutan syura dalam Islam. Ekoran sikapnya ini, beliau pernah disebat oleh bapa saudara khalifah Abu Jaafar al-Mansur ( kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah) kerana tidak mahu akur dengan kedaulatan kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah.

 

Lantaran sikapnya ini, beliau pernah ditanya “ Adakah harus dijalankan hukuman bunuh ke atas orang-orang yang menentang kepimpinan khalifah?”. “ Malik  menjawab dengan serius dan berani “ Harus dilaksanakan hukuman bunuh itu jika khalifah tersebut adil sebagaimana khalifah Umar bin Abd.Aziz”. 

 

Jawapan yang diberikan oleh Malik ini sekali gus menjelaskan pendirian beliau bahawa tidak harus menjatuhkan hukuman bunuh ke atas mereka yang menentang kepimpinan para khulafa’ sama ada daripada pihak Bani Umaiyah ataupun  Bani Abbasiyah kecuali khalifah Umar bin Abd.Aziz. Bagi Malik, khalifah Umar bin Abd.Aziz merupakan seadil-adil khalifah Islam yang muncul selepas Khulafa’ al-Rasyidun.

 

Sepanjang hayatnya, Malik hanya mengarang sebuah kitab yang dinamakan Al-Muwatta’. Hasil ketekunannya dalam bidang hadis, beliau menghafal sebanyak 100,000 buah hadis. Malik memasukkan sebanyak 10,000 ke dalam al-Muwatta’ dan ditapis dari masa ke semasa. Di atas ketelitian dan sifat cermatnya dalam menapis dan menerima hadis, proses pembukuan kitab ini telah memakan jangka masa 40 tahun dengan bilangan hadis sebanyak 500 buah hadis sahaja. Ia dikarang pada zaman Abu Jaafar al-Mansur dan siap dengan sempurna pada zaman pemerintahan al-Mahdi.

 

Malik tidak begitu memfokuskan dan memanjangkan perbahasan dalam bidang ilmu kalam terutama dalam masalah yang menyentuh tentang sifat-sifat keTuhanan. Malah beliau sentiasa mengelak daripada perbahasan tentang sifat-sifat Allah.  Menurut Malik “ Aku tidak memanjangkan  perbahasan dalam masalah ketuhanan kecuali dalam masalah yang ada kaitan rapat dengan amalan (fiqh)”.

 

Walaupun berada di mercu kegemilangan ilmu, namun Malik tidak pernah menafikan kepentingan ijtihad para ulamak lain dalam kehidupan masyarakat majmuk. Antara anak-anak murid Malik yang mashyur ialah al-Imam al-Syafie, AbdulRahman Ibn al-Qasim dan Asad Ibn al-Furat. Beliau  kembali ke rahmatullah pada tahun 179H dalam usianya mencecah 86 tahun.  Jasad beliau disemadikan di Madinah, bumi kelahirannya..

 

  

           

 

 

 

Al-Imam Abu Hanifah: Mujtahid Yang Berwibawa.

Al-Imam Abu Hanifah  atau nama sebenarnya Annu’man bin Tsabit merupakan seorang  tokoh intelektual Islam. Beliau  yang juga dikenali sebagai al-Imam al-‘Azam ( Mahaguru) dilahirkan di  Bandar Kufah pada tahun 80 Hijrah.

 

Minat serta kecenderungan beliau dalam bidang keilmuan Islam timbul sejak usia kecil lagi. Kedudukan Bandar Kufah tempat kelahirannya yang masyhur sebagai sebuah bandar ilmu terutama dalam bidang ilmu falsafah dan akidah merupakan factor utama untuk beliau  menerokai bidang keilmuan Islam.  Dalam situasi tersebut, beliau juga berkesempatan mendampingi para ulama Islam daripada pelbagai mazhab yang berbeza seperti Syiah Zaidiyyah, Imamiyah, Muktazilah dan Khawarij yang begitu aktif  mengadakan kelas pengajian pada masa itu.

 

Semenjak kecil lagi corak kehidupan Abu Hanifah berbeza dengan sesetengah anak-anak orang Arab yang lain.  Sebagai anak kepada seorang saudagar tekstile (kain), beliau juga turut berniaga kain sambil menimba ilmu selok belok berniaga daripada ayahnya. Lantaran tidak mahu melepaskan peluang keemasan untuk menambah ilmu, beliau membahagikan masa hariannya dengan cermat.  Abu Hanifah yang terkenal dengan kecerdikan memulakan karier pengajiannya dalam pengajian Ilmu Kalam.

 

Sebelum memasuki kelas, beliau terlebih dahulu memastikan segala peralatan untuk belajar sentiasa berada dalam keadaan baik dan boleh digunakan dalam sessi pembelajaran.  Dengan tidak meninggalkan kerjayanya sebagai seorang peniaga kain disamping ketekunan semasa belajar, Abu Hanifah akhirnya berjaya meletakkan namanya sebarisan dengan para ilmuan Islam dalam masa yang singkat.  

 

Meskipun begitu, Abu Hanifah merupakan seorang ilmuan yang sentiasa merendah diri dan sering merasakan dirinya masih dalam serba kekurangan dari segi penguasaan ilmu.  Setelah mencapai kedudukan yang agak  tinggi dalam pengajian llmu kalam serta menulis beberapa risalah ilmiah tentangnya, beliau merasakan seolah-olah ada sesuatu yang tidak kena pada dirinya. Timbul difikirannya  bahawa bidang Ilmu Kalam yang diceburinya hanya  merupakan suatu perbahasan kosong yang tidak banyak mendatangkan faedah kepada masyarakat. Susulan ini, Abu Hanifah mula tertarik dengan bidang Ilmu Fiqh dan berusaha bersungguh-sungguh untuk menguasainya.

 

Minat Abu Hanifah untuk menguasai bidang Fiqh sentiasa giat diusahakan. Bandar Kufah lebih tersohor sebagai gedung ilmu dalam bidang ilmu kalam dan falsafah jika dibandingkan dengan kota Madinah yang lebih dikenali sebagai  kota ilmu Atsar ( hadis). Namun dalam bidang pengajian fiqh, bandar Kufah merupakan saingan utama kepada kota Madinah.

 

Dengan kewujudan tokoh-tokoh fiqh ternama di Kufah, Abu Hanifah gigih mengkaji dan mendalami setiap permasalahan fiqh dalam yang timbul dalam kehidupan masyarakat setempat. Beliau juga pernah mengatakan “ Aku berada di lubuk ilmu, lalu aku belajar dari para penghuninya dan mendampingi seorang daripada mereka…”. Yang dimaksudkan oleh Abu Hanifah dengan perkataan lubuk ilmu ialah bandar Kufah yang banyak menerima pengaruh ilmu daripada tokoh-tokoh ilmuan Islam seperti Ali bin Abu Talib, Abdullah bin Mas’ud dan beberapa para sahabat kibar yang lain. Hasil daripada sebaran pengaruh ilmu para sahabat kibar ini, muncul pula di bandar Kufah tokoh-tokoh fiqh yang lain seperti Al-qamah dan Ibrahim al-Nakhie. Manakala yang dimaksudkan dengan salah seorang daripada mereka ialah Hammad bin Abu Sulaiman yang bertanggungjawab membimbing Abu Hanifah dalam bidang fiqh. Hammad bin Abu Sulaiman adalah murid kepada Ibrahim al-Nakhie dan al-Syuibi. Dari segi hearaki penerimaan ilmu, al-Nakhie dan al-Syuibi pula merupakan anak murid kepada Alqamah Ibn Qais, Masruq Ibn al-Ajda’ dan Syurih al-Qadhi yang merupakan anak didik Ali bin Abi Talib dan Abdullah bin Mas’ud.

 

Dalam tempoh pengajiannya, Abu Hanifah menghabiskan masanya bersama Hammad  selama 8 tahun sehinggalah gurunya ini meninggal dunia. Dengan peninggalan Hammad pada tahun 120 Hijrah, para rakan sepengajian dengannya bersetuju untuk melantik Abu Hanifah sebagai pengganti guru mereka. Selain daripada ketokohan beliau dalam bidang fiqh, Abu Hanifah juga merupakan seorang hamba Allah sentiasa berusaha mendampingi Tuhannya selepas masa satu pertiga  malam. Lantaran kebiasaannya yang sentiasa berjaga malam, beliau menunai solat subuh dengan menggunakan wudhuk yang diambil untuk solat isyak selama 40 tahun.

 

Abu Hanifah merupakan seorang pendidik yang berdedikasi. Sebelum mengajar, beliau terlebih dahulu memasti dan merujuk kitab-kitab telaahnya serta catitan-catitan ilmiah yang dipelajarinya semasa berada dibawah bimbingan Hammad bin Abu Sulaiman. Disamping itu, pengalamannya dalam bidang perniagaan dan penguasaannya dalam ilmu kalam turut diselitkan dalam methodology penyampaian beliau semasa mengajar ilmu-fiqh. Langkah ini membuatkan Abu Hanifah  semakin disegani dan dihormati ramai. Yang paling nyata, Imam Abu Hanifah berjaya mendidik dan memprodukkan ulamak yang berkualiti serta berauthoriti. Antara murid-muridnya yang tersohor ialah  Zufail Ibn Huzail al-Kufi, Muhammad Ibn Hasan al-Syaibani dan Yaakub bin Ibrahim bin Habib al-Ansari (Abu Yusuf).

 

Ekoran kemahsyuran  dengan sifat taqwa, alim dan warak, beliau pernah diminta untuk menjawat jawatan kadhi di zaman pemerintahan Marwan bin Muhammad ( kerajaan Bani Umaiyah). Namun disebabkan timbul rasa takut sekiranya berlaku zalim semasa menjatuhkan hukuman, Abu Hanifah membuat keputusan menolak tawaran tersebut. Akibat penolakan  tersebut, beliau dijatuh hukuman sebanyak 100 kali sebatan, iaitu 10 kali sebatan untuk setiap hari. Hukuman ini dibuat dengan harapan dapat memaksa Abu Hanifah menerima kembali jawatan kadhi yang telah ditawarkan kepadanya. Meskipun begitu, disebabkan kedegilannya,  maka hukuman tersebut tidak dapat mengubah pendiriannya. Akhirnya Abu Hanifah dibebaskan begitu sahaja.

 

Setelah kerajaan Bani Umaiyah jatuh di Dimsyk dan timbul pula kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah di Baghdad, Abu Hanifah sekali lagi  ditawar menjawat jawatan kadhi. Kali ini beliau terpaksa berhadapan dengan khalifah Abu Jaafar al-Mansur. Namun dengan kepintaran akal yang dimiliki, beliau dapat mencari helah untuk berhujjah semasa berdialog dengan khalifah. Akhirnya buat kali kedua beliau berjaya mengelak diri daripada meyandang jawatan kadhi yang ditawarkan kepadanya.

 

Sebagai seorang imam yang berwawasan, kepintaran Abu Hanifah senantiasa menyerlah. Dalam suatu peristiwa, Ibn Abu Laila yang merupakan kadhi di Kufah pada masa itu terpaksa berhadapan dengan masalah yang timbul ekoran tuduhan seorang wanita gila terhadap seorang lelaki. Dalam kejadian itu, wanita gila tersebut menuduh lelaki berkenaan adalah anak zina.  Bagi menyelesaikan masalah, Ibn Abu Laila menjatuhkan hukuman dua kali sebatan keatasnya di masjid dalam keadaan wanita itu berdiri.  Satu sebatan bagi pihak bapa lelaki tesebut dan satu sebatan lagi bagi pihak ibunya.

 

Apabila berita perlaksanaan hukuman ini sampai ke pengetahuan Abu Hanifah, beliau mengkritik tindakan Ibn Abu Laila dengan katanya “ Sesungguhnya Ibn Abu Laila telah melakukan enam bentuk  kesilapan semasa menjalankan hukuman. Kesilapan pertama ialah beliau menjatuhkan hukuman had di masjid sedangkan hukuman tersebut tidak boleh dilaksanakan di masjid. Kesilapan kedua kadhi tersebut ialah menjatuhkan hukuman tersebut dalam keadaan wanita itu berdiri sedangkan  kaum wanita mesti berada dalam keadaan duduk semasa menerima hukuman. Kesilapan ketiga; kadhi tersebut menjatuhkan hukuman sekali sebat bagi pihak bapa dan sekali sebatan lagi bagi pihak ibu lelaki tersebut sedangkan walaupun jika lelaki tersebut sendiri membuat tuduhan palsu terhadap satu kumpulan ( lebih daripada seorang) dia hanya layak menerima satu sebatan sahaja. Kesilapan keempat ialah dia menghimpun kedua-dua sebatan sekali gus sedangkan mengikut syarak, setiap sebatan tidak boleh dihimpun sekali gus hinggalah kurang rasa sakit salah satu daripada sebatan tersebut. Kesilapan keempat, perempuan tersebut merupakan orang gila maka hukuman had tidak diwajibkan ke atas orang gila. Kesilapan keenam, Kedua-dua sebatan yang dikenakan ke atas wanita tersebut bagi mewakili kedua-dua ibubapa lelaki berkenaan sedangkan kedua-dua ibubapanya tidak berada dalam majlis perlaksanaan hukuman tersebut  maka mereka berdua sepatutnya dijemput hadir”.

 

 

Status Abu Hanifah sebagai seorang imam mazhab bersandarkan kepada keilmuan dan sifat perikemanusiaannya. Sehubungan ini, segala ijtihad beliau dalam permasalahan fiqh  meletakkan beliau sebagai seorang alim yang berauthoriti untuk mengeluarkan fatwa daripada pemikirannya berlandasan al-Quran dan al-Sunnah.  

 

Dalam methodologi ijtihadnya, beliau pernah mengatakan “Langkah pertama sekali ialah; kami mengambil sumber hukum daripada al-Quran, jika tidak dijelaskan di dalam al-Quran kami akan merujuk kepada hadis sebagi sumber kedua. Kemudian kami juga menerima pendapat para sahabat dan beramal dengan segala yang disepakati oleh mereka. Jika didapati  ada perselisihan pendapat dikalangan para sahabat Rasulullah  tentang sesuatu hukum,  nescaya kami bandingkan terlebih antara kedua-kedua masalah tersebut  beserta seluruh illat (sebab) hukum-hukum tersebut”.

 

Abu Hanifah meninggal dunia pada tahun 150 Hijrah iaitu pada tahun kelahiran  al-Imam al-Syafie. Pemergiannya sukar dicari ganti. Meskipun beliau merupakan seorang tokoh yang alim dalam bidang fiqh, namun beliau tidak pernah menulis sebarang artikel atau kitab dalam bidang tersebut. Penulisan beliau hanya tertumpu dalam bidang ilmu kalam. Mengikut ahli sejarah, hasil penulisan Imam Abu Hanifah ialah kitab al-Fiqh al-Akbar, kitab al-Alim wa al-Mutaalim, risalah yang ditujukan kepada Othman bin Muslim al-Batti dan kitab dalam membicarakan tentang penolakkan terhadap mazhab al-Qadariyah. Semoga Allah mencucuri rahmat ke atas rohnya…………Amin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

           

CHAPTER IV:THE RESURGENCE OF WOMEN

Written by: Dr.Hasan Abdullah al-Turabi.

The traditional customs and practices of the historical Muslim Society could not have endured long in the face of challenges posed by alien cultures and unconventional patterns of life. The external influences are represented mainly in the ideological inroads of western civilization which have swept the whole of Muslim World. The Cultural domination of Muslims by the West has shattered their confidence in almost the whole legacy of ideas, Islamic and traditional. Furthermore Muslims have imbibed and assimilated cultural attitudes and modes which are very liberal with regard to women. This trend of women’s liberation constituted a serious temptation for the downtrodden Muslim women.

The western liberal tendency has itself been a revolt against a sickly religious tradition which maltreated women in ways which closely resembled the aberrant traditional ways of the Muslims. In early European Society women were not equated with men in humanity or religion, in fundamental rights or obligations, nor in legal capacity or social consideration. The revolt of the new European society against religion and convention was universal. It was in particular a complete departure from the absolute homogeneous and monotheist order that once prevailed under the authority of the Church. Society became secular and humanistic in its values and therefore heterogeneous and free, pursuing no single ultimate end in life and tending to nonconformism and libertarianism. Thus, politics, economics, science and arts – all became free and autonomous. Likewise the petrified traditional forms of social life relating to sex relations and conduct broke down towards promiscuity, permissiveness and sexual indulgence. Like power, pleasure, knowledge and beauty, sex almost became an object of total uninhibited devotion. As a consequence the woman, once again, began to lose her primacy and autonomy as a human being, to become an object for physical pleasure and commercial promotion. Her purpose in life became more to realize her femininity than to fulfil her humanity. She would fake her natural physical aspect by all sorts of artificiality and cosmetic treatment or surgery: and waste her energy, wealth and time simply to maximize her seductiveness in the eyes of men. She would dress up, adorn herself and go out simply to attract, charm and excite, by her tempting nudity, beautiful form, sweet scent, delightful colours and sex appeal. This she would do to invite the fixed attention of men, to entice some to seek her privacy. Similarly the man, when overcome by the wanton pursuit of carnal pleasure would relate to women only as male, and would affect looks and conduct simply to attract them. He might waste all energy and wealth in satisfaction of his base desires. The privacy of sex is thereby shattered in society, matrimonial relations are subverted and the institution of family is undermined as the special stable milieu for nursing, rearing, and educating the child.

This way of life has become universal in the West; but some aspects of it have swept over most of the modern sectors of our Islamic societies, just as much as economic materialism and political secularism have spread to break some Muslims loose of their solid religious moorings and thereby to weaken the norms of social control in their life. This was brought about by the dominance of western culture and the debility of the Muslim society that has become prone to adulteration and blind imitation.

On the other hand, economic and social developments in Muslim lands have precipitated the destruction of the old social order. That order, with all its conventions and traditions was rooted in the past and could not withstand the change of circumstances. Neither man nor woman was holding on to the values of the past consciously, it was merely a legacy received from historical custom giving way to practices and developments of new times. Religion was hardly present in people’s minds, and then only as a cultural value to sanctify custom. Anyway, religious values were waning as religious institutions which used to promote them date and die away.

As consciousness of the growing economic needs spread in the impoverished society of Muslims, and as they became less resistant to material temptation and more deprived of the close social ties of economic solidarity, the strong pressures for a better life swept away the reservations of the past. Fathers and husbands came to encourage daughters and spouses to go out, not in pursuit of knowledge or good works, but to earn a living and supplement the family income. Women took advantage of this new-found experience and power to assert their freedom from the vanity and authority of men. This was not so much a full choice of a new and better way of life, but a liberation from the old order: a revolt against control and a fancy of the permissive model of the West. Furthermore, increased urbanisation brought more people into a new and impersonal social context with little of the close community ties of acquaintance, kinship and solidarity, that used to cultivate regard for the norms of public decency or for family honour, and that was a deterrent to acts of indecency and ignominy. The crowded urban conditions brought about much more direct contact and, as a result, many occasions for temptation between men and women. The old-time institution of ‘harem’, the barrier of female privacy, was dismantled for practical considerations, with no compensating development of personal piety or moral barriers. The new urban attitude was one of indifference and emancipation. in lieu of the considerate, reserved attitude of before. Under the impact of cultural change and alien domination, the traditional society of Muslims is falling apart. No lamentations by conservatives over the changing times or tenacious clinging to the past would save much. The fate of the traditional way of Muslims would not be different from that of the European old orders when its theoretical and material foundations collapsed and new social values and structures were ushered in by the revolution. If conservatives hold on to rigid customary forms of the past and fail to direct the process of change according to Islamic guidance, the change will come to pass all the same; and even faster and more tragic than in the case of Europe, if only because the European example has become so compelling.

A revolution against the condition of women in the traditional Muslim societies is inevitable. The Islamists are urged by their own ideals to reform the traditional society and to close the gap between the fallen historical reality and the desired model of ideal Islam. This is even more urgent with respect to the present state of women. Contemporary social trends in an ever closer world require an early initiative to take the direction of change in hand before it takes its free course, when the alien trends take root and are assimilated, and it becomes too late to undertake right-guided Islamic reform. The Islamists should beware of an attitude that seeks refuge from the invading liberating western culture in the indigenous past as a lesser evil that should be preserved with some accommodation. Conservation is a wasted effort. The Islamists are worthy of the leadership of the movement of women’s liberation from the traditional quagmire of historical Islam, and that of their resurgence towards the heights of ideal Islam. They should not leave their society at the mercy of the advocates of westernization who exploit the urgency of reform to deform society and lead it astray. The teachings of their own religion call upon Islamists to be the right-guided leaders for the salvation of men and women, emancipating them from the shackles of history and convention, and steering their life clear of the aberrations of mutative change.

SOURCES

1) Tafsir Ibn-Kathir.
2) Tafsir al-Tabari.
3) Fath al-Bari, by Ibn-Hajar al-Asqalani Commentary on Sahih al-Bukari.
4) Al-Jami Al Saheeh by al-Tirmizi.
5) Saheeh Muslim.
6) Sunan Abu Dawoud.
7) Sunan Ibn Majah.
8) Al Isabah Fi Tamyeez al-Sahabah by Ibn Hajar.
9) Tabaqat by Ibn-Saad.
10) Tareekh by al-Tabari.
11) Sunan by al-Nasaii.

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER III:WOMEN IN MUSLIM SOCIETY

Written by:Dr. Hasan Abdullah al-Turabi

The Muslims in history have experienced a significant deisation from the general ideals of life as taught by Islam. It is, therefore, not at all surprising that their loss is equally great in the area of social guidance which Islam offered regarding women. Whenever weakness creeps into the faith of Muslim men they tend to treat women oppressively and seek to exploit them. This is natural and is amply demonstrated by the fact that most of the rulings of the Quran regarding women were sent down as restrictions on at men with a view to preventing them from transgressing against women, as is their natural disposition and their actual practice in many societies. Only a few of the Quranic injunctions impose restrictions on women.

We here quote some of those rulings that guarantee a fair deal for women. “When you divorce women and they fulfil the term of their Iddat, then retain them in kindness or release them in kindness. But do not retain them to prejudice them or to take undue advantage. Do not take the revelations of God as a laughing matter. Remember God’s grace upon you and that which he has revealed upon you of the scripture and of wisdom to exhort your. be pious and know that God is aware of all things. When you divorce women and they fulfil their term do not prevent them from marrying their former husbands, if they agree on equitable terms. That is an admonition for him among you who believes in God and the day of judgement and God knows, but you do not know”. (Al-Bagarah, 231). “O you who believe, it is not lawful for you to inherit women against their will [by maliciously retaining them captive in formal marriage till death], nor to put constraint upon them to take away part of what you have given them unless they be guilty of flagrant lewdness. Consort with them in kindness for if you hate them it may happen that you hate something wherein God has placed much good”. (Al-Nisa, 19). “When they have fulfilled their term, there is no blame on you if they [women] dispose of themselves in a decent and reasonable manner. And God is well aware of what you do” (Al-Bagarah, 234)

Most if not all of the verses of the Quran regarding oath (of abstinence from sex), divorce and Iddat (term of transition) were revealed to bring an end to the oppressive traditions and customs according to which a woman was retained in formal marital captivity and for long periods of time while her fate remained in suspense. The same is true of the verses concerning inheritance which restored rights which had been denied to her by guaranteeing her a definite share. Other verses were revealed which criticized the pessimism and dejection that used to attend a female birth and the abominable practices of female infanticide. The Quran says, “When any of them receives the tidings of the birth of a female his face becomes dark and he is filled with sulkiness. He keeps hiding from people because of the unfortunate news, [wondering] whether to hold on to it as a contemptible thing or just bury it in the soil. O! what a foul judgement”. (Al-Nahal, 58-59). “When the [female] buried alive will be questioned: for what fault was she murdered?” (Al-Takwir, 8-9).

There are furthermore, many traditions of the Prophet (peace be upon him) which warn menfolk against meting out an ill-treatment to women, beating or detaining them. The Prophet said, “None of you will flog his wife like a donkey and later towards the end of the day have intercourse with her”. (Bukhari). He once warned: “A large number of women have come to the Muhammads complaining about their husbands. Those husbands are not the best amongst you”. (Riad Us-Saliheen). The Prophet’s traditions encourage the Muslim to care for the good upbringing and education of women, and for their well-being in general: “The best of you is one who is best towards his family and I am best towards the family”. (At-Tirmithy. “None but a noble man treats women in an honourable manner. And none but an ignoble treats women disgracefully”. (At-Tirmithy).

Weak commitment to religion tends to cultivate unjust and hostile treatment of women. For unlike man, a woman is created and brought up gentle and delicate. Performance of her natural functions keeps her away from the toughening experience of everyday public life. Man, uncultured by religion, tends to oppress her as is common in many a human society. Men normally purposefully keep women weak, and the jealousy which they entertain in respect of women induces them to multiply the means for restraining and monopolising them. They like to dominate the property and life of the female with a view to assert their vanity and arrogance.

Male jealousy is but one aspect of masculine capricious tendencies which only godly men are immune from and which inculcated the myth that women, by nature, suffer from excessive incapacity. Men use that fantasy as an excuse to ban women from active participation in the broad spectrum of human life and to deprive them of experience and training – thereby devitalizing and debilitating them in fact. and finding reason for further ill-treatment and prejudice. These male tendencies and the appending customs and ways are manifest in many societies where male arbitrariness runs amok with no religious or human limitation.

Take, for instance, the Arab, Persian and Indian Societies. Although the message of Islam has spread in these societies from early times, the teaching and inculcation of Islamic cultural values was not coextensive with the horizontal expansion. Consequently some pre-Islamic values and prejudices have continued to persist, despite the domination of islamic forms. In some cases there was manifest historical religious decline and a relapse to anterior social ethos and mores.

This phenomenon has sometimes occasioned an even more serious development. New or degenerate Muslim societies would sometimes, out of ignorance, attribute their un-Islamic legacy or custom to Islam itself. By attaching an Islamic value to these practices they seek to give them legitimacy and sanctity, the values of Islam being accepted as sacred and supreme. This explains the unabated influence on the minds of many otherwise good Muslims of attitudes abhorrent to Islam, especially in the sensitive area of sex relations where passion is strong and custom is sacrosanct.

Many latterly juristic rules and stratagems have been adopted to qualify the Sharia to suit cherished customs and traditions. For instance, with a view to do this, express provisions of the Sharia are sometimes compared and contrasted, not to give relative effect to all, but to claim the abrogation of provisions purporting to extend rights, immunities or liberties to women; or to restrict their general scope almost to a vanishing point. Another tricky approach is to read liberally and broaden the scope of rules granting authority to men, while reading literally and strictly those imposing limitations on women. This discriminatory attitude of interpretation is very widespread. Yet another aspect of this tendentious jurisprudence is to generalise the provisions of the Quran and the Sunna that were meant to apply exclusively to the Prophet or his wives due to their unique position.

But the most popular anti-feminist argument derives from the abuse of the juristic principle that means and preliminaries assume the value of their ends and results. Thus the maximum precautionary prohibitions have to be observed to bar approaches to sexual temptation and avoid its undesired consequences. But the proper jurisprudential judgement in the absence of an express provision is to balance in consideration the risks of temptation with the positive merits of the integration of men and women in Muslim society, and not to forfeit all freedom for some necessary reserve in social intercourse.

The traditional Muslim Society, which is over-impressed by its historical decline, had developed a general preference for circumspection and cautiousness over the demands of positive pursuits. It has become unduly conservative for fear that freedom of thought would lead astray and divide the community; and that freedom of women would degenerate into licentious promiscuity – so much that the basic religious rights and duties of women have been forsaken and the fundamentals of equality and fairness in the structure of Muslim Society, as enshrined in the Sharia, have been completely overlooked.

Pseudo-religious arguments have been advanced for justifying a complete metamorphosis of the patterns of social life initiated by the Prophet (peace be upon him) himself under the guidance of the Quran. The most popular is the claim that the magnificent Quranic and Sunnic regulations had relevance for the virtuous society which prevailed during the Prophet’s own life. Later however, it is argued that people have changed and corruption became the order or succeeding societies and latter days. Hence the necessity to correct this degenerative tendency by adjusting the norms of social conduct in the sense of greater circumspection. This would be a liberal manner of interpretation that underlines the spirit and purpose rather than the letter of the law, in order to allow for a progressive application thereof. But this is not the prevailing manner of thinking among Muslims who advance conservative views on female affairs. They are normally very literal in their understanding of texts; but they tendentiously opt for an understanding that suits their prejudice. Islam is not a matter of a single rule that can be flexibly understood; it is a whole order of norms that establish the entire way of life or social structure of Islam, and is not liable to variation.

Furthermore, the claim is based on a pious but excessive overvaluation of the society of Madinah. In fact not all its members were like the rightly-guided companion of the Prophet; some elements were hypocrites or new converts not yet free of Jewish or pre-Islamic Arabic influences and manners. The very verses of the Quran that prescribe proper dress for ladies refer to the presence of hypocrites and rumour-mongers (Al-Ahzab 59-60). Whatever the comparative character of our present-day society the proper reform policy is to reshape it after the example of the Sunnie society by changing its deviant ways and re-establishing Islamic Social practices and institutions now in disuse. It is not sound social policy to submit to the dominant ways of the de facto historical society and then either to forsake Islamic institutions in an attempt to save some of the ideals in that alien social context.

The thought and practice of Muslims have come lately to misrepresent most of the doctrinal and normative teachings of Islam on female affairs. The female is hardly ever religiously addressed except through the mediation of the male and as an addendum to him. In the fallen society of Muslims, women have little freedom to marry the person she likes, or to separate from a husband she loathes. Nor is she, as wife, entitled to full consultation and gracious companionship by her husband. In many cases she hardly enjoys an equal opportunity to earn and own property, or the full capacity to manage her property or to dispose thereof. All sorts of subterfuges are employed to deny her inheritance. Her role in private life has been reduced to that of a housewife chosen not for her personal merit, for she was denied the education or the opportunity to acquire merit, but for the merit of her menfolk.

In the domain of public life she is not allowed to make any original contribution to the promotion of the religious quality of life. Whenever she was allowed to work towards the material development of life that was likely to be in a context of exploitation or as mundane work with little spiritual satisfaction or significance.

The greatest injustice visited upon women, is their segregation and isolation from the general society. Sometimes the slightest aspect of her public appearance would be considered a form of obscene exhibitionism. Even her voice was bracketed in the same category. Her mere presence at a place where men are also present was considered shameful promiscuity. She was confined to her home in a manner prescribed in Islam only as a penal sanction for an act of adultery. She was so isolated on the pretext that she might devote herself exclusively to the care of her children and the service of her husband. But how could she qualify for attending to domestic family affairs or to the rearing of children in a satisfactory manner without being herself versed through education or experience, in the moral and functional culture of the wider society?

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER II:THE VERDICT OF JURISPRUDENCE

Written by: Dr.Hasan Abdullah al-Turabi

The verdict of Islamic jurisprudence is just the practical expression of the dictates of the faith. Women, according to Sharia, are counterparts of men. And in Islamic jurisprudence, there is no separate order of regulations for them. There are, however, few limited secondary regulations where a distinction is drawn between the two sexes. But these are intended purely to enable both of them to give a genuine expression of their faith in accordance with their respective human nature. But the Sharia (or Islamic law) is essentially the same, and its general rules are common for both the sexes; it is addressed to both without any distinction. The underlying presumption in the Sharia is that sex is immaterial, except where the text makes the distinction or where proof can be adduced to that effect. Thus personal religious services for a woman in Islam, for instance, are the same as for a man. She has to perform her prayer, fasting, pilgrimage to the Holy Kaaba and remember God.

Just like men, women have to observe the general religious standards relating to personal conduct, social dealings and moral behaviour – like being truthful, fair altruistic, beneficent, righteous and well-mannered. Islam does not provide different moral codes for men and women. Even in matters of public life they, too, are expected to do their part and endure the sufferings of life as patiently as men are supposed to do. They too are expected to show solidarity with the community of believers and to forsake the comforts of their home and hearth to migrate to the state of the Muslims, to wage jihad with them, and to promote the well-being of their society. In all these matters there is no distinction between Muslim men and women. For God has proclaimed, “And the believers, men and women, are allies, of each other, enjoining the right and forbidding the wrong, establishing prayer, giving alms and obeying God and his messenger. As for these God will have mercy on them, God is Mighty and Wise”.(Tawba,71).

Women have an equal opportunity and incentive to share in every aspect of religious virtue: “God has got ready forgiveness and tremendous rewards for the Muslim men and women; the believing men and women; the devout men and women; the truthful men and women; the patiently suffering men and women; the humble men and women; the almsgiving men and women; the fasting men and women, the men and women who guard their chastity; and the men and women who are exceedingly mindful of God”.(Al-Ahzab,35)

Tradition has it that Umm-Salmah said to the Prophet, “O Messenger of God! The Quran speaks of men but does not speak of us, women”. As a consequence, the above-cited verses of the Quran were revealed. Islam assigns a Muslim woman a due role to play in discharging collective responsibilities which preserve the essence of the religious society in general. She must, therefore, assiduously apply herself to fulfil her part; for if all Muslims neglect to discharge these collective responsibilities, she would have to answer for that default like every man. Some special obligations like maintenance of the family, attendance of group prayers, and the levy or mass general conscription for war are too onerous for the ordinary female. Islam has relieved women from attending to these as a matter of original, personal responsibility, if Muslim men can sufficiently attend to them. That does not mean that a woman is barred from doing any of these things. She may very well participate in all such activities even when there is no dearth of men to do them. However if men are not fulfilling their due obligations in this regard, it would be her duty to compensate their default or complement their effort.

None and nothing in Islam may stand in the way of a woman contributing to the general good and competing for religious achievement. The equal personal responsibilities of women in Islam are evident and clearly established. That collective duties are commonly borne by men and women is shown in the practice of the Prophet (peace be upon him), who commanded women to act charitably and give for the sake of God, and in that women used to respond.

In his collection of authentic traditions, Al-Bukhari narrates on the authority of Ibn-Abbas, who said: “I attended the prayer of Eid-ul-Fitr along with the Prophet, (peace be upon him) and Abu Bakr and Uthman. They offered the prayer before the sermon. Later the Prophet (peace be upon him) delivered his Eid address and then moved ahead making his way through the people, till he reached the ladies, accompanied by Bilal. The Prophet (peace be upon him) read out the following verse from the Holy Quran: ‘O Prophet, when believing women come to you to offer their oath of allegiance that they will not associate any thing with God, nor will they commit theft, nor indulge in fornication, nor murder their children, nor slander any one, nor disobey you in whatever that is fair, do accept their oath of allegiance and beseech God to forgive them. Indeed God is the most Forgiving and most Kind'”. [Al Mumtahinah, 12]

“When the Prophet had finished with these verses, he said to them: ‘Are you all committed to that? One of the ladies replied, (while others kept silent), ‘yes’. The Prophet (peace be upon him) did not, at that time. know which of them did so! The Prophet (peace be upon him) went on to ask them to make their donations. Bilal spread out his shirt and said: ‘Donate, my parents be sacrificed for you ladies’. And they all dropped their rings, studded with precious or ordinary stone)”.

Throughout the period of the Prophet’s ministry, women used to offer their prayers, even the early morning and late evening ones, along with the congregation of Muslims in general. In his collection of authentic traditions Bukhari narrated: “I (the Prophet) like to prolong the prayer but when I hear a child weeping I make it shorter for I loathe to make any inconvenience to the child’s mother”. Similarly, Muslim, another prominent authority on traditions, narrated in his own collection of authentic traditions: “If your women ask for permission to visit the mosques, do allow them to do so”. On the authority of a report by the Prophet’s wife, Sayiadh Aishah, it is stated that the Prophet (peace be upon him) used to offer the morning prayer whence the ladies would disperse completely covered in their dresses and they could not be recognised in the darkness. (Bukhari)

Muslim Women used also to participate in military expeditions bringing water to the thirsty combatants, treating the wounded, and carrying them to safety, and sometimes engaging in active warfare. The Quran refers to this and other exploits of men and women, “And their lord responded to them: I suffer not the work of any worker male or female to be lost. You proceed one from another. So those who fled and were driven forth from their homes and suffered harm for my cause and fought or where slain, verily I shall remit their evil deeds and shall bring them into gardens underneath which rivers flow as a reward from God, and God offers the fairest of rewards”. (All-Imran, 195)

Even the Prophet’s own wife, Sayidah Aishah, actively participated in such military services. Anas stated, “In the Battle of Uhud when the Muslims were routed and were put to flight from the Prophet, I saw how Aisha bint Abu Bakr and Umm-Saleem were extremely busy carrying waterskins on their backs and emptying them into the mouths of the Muslims”. (Bukhari)

There were other prominent ladies who equally participated in the war effort: Umm-Sinan Al Aslamyiah, and Ummyah bint Qais (as reported by Tabaqat). Hamnah bint Jahash was one of those ladies who pledged allegiance to Islam and participated in the battle of Uhud, bringing water to the thirsty, transporting the wounded to safety and giving them the necessary treatment. (Al Isabah). Al Rabee bint Mua’weth, also known as Laila al-Ghifariah, used to accompany the Prophet (peace be upon him) in his military campaigns, treating the wounded and looking after the sick. (Al-Isabah). Bukhari gives the following report from her: “We were with the Prophet (peace be upon him), giving water to the thirsty, treating the wounded and bringing the dead bodies of the Muslims to Madina”. Umm-Dhahhak bint Masoud also accompanied the Prophet in his military campaign of Khaiber. The Prophet gave her the same share of spoils there as he gave to man. (Al-Isabah)

Safyiah bint Abdul Mattalib, too, was one of those women who actively participated in the battles: “When the people took off for the military campaign of Al Khandaq, the Prophet (peace be upon him) placed his women in a small fortress called Fari, and Hassan bin Thabit was also left with them. Later a Jew came and climbed up the fortress till he was in a position to command a full view of all. Saifyah belted herself around the waist, took a pole and descended upon him striking him with the pole till he died”. (Al-Isabah)
Nusaybah bint Ka’b is another lady who witnessed the battle of Uhud. She intended to bring water to the wounded, but she in fact took an active part in the fighting, and on that day brought great havoc to the enemy and wounded twelve of them severely. When the Muslims pulled back and exposed the Prophet, she stood her ground firmly in his defence. (Tabaqat). The Prophet (peace be upon him) appreciated her much and praised her. When she heard the news that her son Habib was killed in battle, she swore either she would die in front of Musailamah, or kill him. She participated in the battle of Al Yamamah along with Khalid bin Al Waleed. Her son Abdullah, too, was with her. He was killed in battle while she as well lost one of her arms. (Al-Isabah)

Another case is Umm-Haran bint-Malhan. The Prophet (peace be upon him) went to the daughter of Malhan and stood by her side and then laughed. She said to him: “Why are you laughing, O Messenger of God?” The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Some of my people would sail on the Green Sea (the Mediterranean) for God’s sake”. She said to him: “Please pray that God may include me with them”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) prayed for her. (Bukhari). About Umm-Saleem bint Malhan, Sahih Muslim reports that, in the battle of Junain, she had a dagger which she carried about.

From the preceding exposition, it is evident that in defence and other collective duties and obligations of public life Muslim women may participate. But they are not duty-bound to do so, except when the urgency is such that their participation becomes mandatory. The Mother of Believers, A’yishah, is reported to have requested the Prophet (peace be upon him) for permission to participate in Jihad (fighting). The Prophet (peace be upon him) said to her, “Haj is your Jihad”.

According to Ibn-Batal, a commentator, the tradition of A’yishah mentioned above proves that participation in fighting is not binding on women, but the statement that Haj is their Jihad does not bar them from volunteering for Jihad. Bukhari seems to express the same opinion.

On the basis of the uniform principles of Islamic jurisprudence, a Muslim Woman enjoys the same capacity and freedom enjoyed by a man. She too can propose to a man for marriage, orally or in writing, she can freely choose her spouse, reject a suitor she does not like or obtain divorce from an estranged husband against his will. But a male relative normally formalises the marriage contract, and marriage dissolution or divorce on a woman’s initiative is only granted by a judge.

Umamah bint Abi’l-As was one lady companion of the Prophet (peace be upon him) who proposed for marriage in writing. She sent a message to Al Mugheerah bin Naufal saying: “If you feel you stand in need of us then proceed forth”. He then sought her hand in marriage from Al Hasan, her cousin, who duly solemnised the marriage. (Al-lsabah)

An account about Sahal bin Saad Al Saidi in the books of authentic traditions tells about a Muslim woman who proposed verbally to the Prophet (peace be upon him) himself. She told him: “I present myself to you”. She then waited for quite some time while the Prophet kept looking at her. A man said to the Prophet: “If you don’t need her please marry me to her”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) asked him: “Do you have anything to offer as dowry?” The man replied: “I don’t have anything except this loin cloth”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) said to him: “If you give her your loin cloth you will remain without one, look for something else”. The man said: “I can’t find any”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) then advised him, “Try to find even an iron ring”. He tried in vain. The Prophet (peace be upon him) finally asked him: “Do you know anything from the Quran (learnt by heart)?” The man replied: “Yes, such and such Surah of the Quran”, and he named the Surahs. The Prophet (peace be upon him) then declared: “I solemnize your marriage with her with whatever verses of the Quran you have as dowry”. (All Six Reporters of Tradition)

Regarding the making of marriage proposals to women, one may read the provisions of the Quran about proposing to a woman whose husband has died, while she is spending the period of transition, “Iddah”. God says, “There is no harm to you if you make a hint of an offer of betrothal to women or hold it in your hearts; God knows that you cherish them in your hearts. But don’t make a secret engagement with them, except in terms indirect and honourable, nor resolve the bond of marriage till the term prescribed is fulfilled. And know that God knows what is in your hearts. So take heed of Him. And know that God is most forgiving and most forbearing”. (Al Bagarah, 235).

Regarding the freedom of marital choice of a woman, one may read the provisions of the Quran about not preventing a woman, by force, from marrying: “And when you divorce women, and they fulfil the term of their Iddat, either take them back on equitable terms or set them free on equitable terms. But do not take them back to prejudice them or to take undue advantage thereof. Whosoever does that, indeed, he harms his own self”. (Al Bagarah, 232).

The Prophet (peace be upon him) ordered that a woman should not be married but with her own authority and consent. The Prophet (peace be upon him) ordered: “Do not marry a non-virgin except on her instruction, nor marry a virgin except with her permission; and her silence may go for permission”. (Bukhari). Whether a girl is a virgin or not, the Prophet (peace be upon him) would not allow their marriage under compulsion. Ibn-Abbas stated that a virgin girl came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and told him that her father had got her married without her approval. The Prophet (peace be upon him) gave her complete freedom to choose whichever course that pleased her. (Reported by Abu Dawoud, Ahmed, and Ibn-Majah). Another girl came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and complained that her father had married her to his nephew against her wish, the Prophet gave her the choice of rejecting the marriage. But she said to the Prophet (peace be upon him), “I endorse what my father did, but I wanted to show women that parents have nothing to do in the matter”. (Ibn-Majah).

The dissolution of marriage and the grant of divorce by the judge on the wife’s application is normal practice in personal law. A wife can have whatever creed of scriptural religion at variance with her Muslim Husband without any compulsion. She can and should acquire any education without any limit or hindrance. It is reported that Prophet (peace be upon him) strongly recommended the good education of girls. Abu Bardah Ibn-Abi Musa quoted his father as saying that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, three people will be doubly rewarded by God. Any one from among the people of the scriptures who believed in his own Prophet as well as in Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), a slave who endeavours to meet his obligation towards God as well his masters and anyone who has a slave girl and strove to educate her and teach her well and then gives her freedom and marries her. (All the six reporters of tradition). It is worthy of note that women have been attending the general assemblies for learning held by the Prophet (peace be upon him).

Women are entitled to full freedom of expression of their proper views. Sayidah Ayishah is famous for going all-out to advance her juristic opinions. Muslim ladies used to venture their views in the presence of the Prophet (peace be upon him) as well his successors, the Caliphs. Ibn Al-Jauzi narrated the virtues and merits of Umar bin Al-Khattab (God bless him) in the following words: Umar forbade the people from paying excessive dowries and addressed them saying: “Don’t fix the dowries for women over forty ounces. If ever that is exceeded I shall deposit the excess amount in the public treasury”. As he descended from the pulpit, a flat-nosed lady stood up from among the women audience, and said: “It is not within your right”. Umar asked: “Why should this not be of my right?” she replied: “Because God has proclaimed: ‘even if you had given one of them (wives) a whole treasure for dowry take not the least bit back. Would you take it by false claim and a manifest sin'”. (Al Nisa, 20). When he heard this, Umar said: “The woman is right and the man (Umar) is wrong. It seems that all people have deeper insight and wisdom than Umar”. Then he returned to the pulpit and declared: “O people, I had restricted the giving of more than four hundred dirhams in dowry. Whosoever of you wishes to give in dowry as much as he likes and finds satisfaction in so doing may do so”.

According to Islamic jurisprudence a woman is competent to own property and dispose of it in any manner. The Sharia generally provides for an equitable and fair role for women in the economic life of Muslim society. Just as much as they share in the management of family affairs, they can contribute to the support of the family, although they are not legally bound to provide maintenance. A woman can share outdoor work with the man to earn a common living. Asma bint Abu Bakr is said to have narrated that when Al Zubair married her, he had no land property, nor a slave, nor anything else, except a camel for * lmgation * and a horse. She said: “I would give fodder to his horse, draw the water, patch his water skin, knead the flour. I was not good at baking and preparing bread; but I had some sincere Ansar neighbour ladies who used to help me with the baking. I used to bring, on my head, fruit kernels from the land which the Prophet (peace be upon him) had given to Al Zubair. That land was at a distance of three farsakhs (about ten miles). One day I was on my way home with a load on my head when I met the Prophet with a number of Ansar. the Prophet (peace be upon him) asked me to ride, behind him on the camel, but I felt shy of joining the company of men. The Prophet (peace be upon him) realised that I was feeling shy and, therefore, continued his journey without me. Later I came to Al Zubair and told him how I met the Prophet (peace be upon him) with a company of Ansars, and how I declined his offer when he bade the camel to kneel so that I might ride behind him. I told Al Zubair I felt shy and remembered your jealousy over your self-respect and honour. On hearing that account Al Zubar said, ‘By God your carrying fruit kernels is far more distressing for me than riding the camel with the Prophet’. Later Abu Bakr sent me a servant to save me the trouble of looking after the horse and I felt as if I had been relieved of the bondage of slavery”. (Bukhari).

Muslim couples are supposed to cooperate and consult over matters relating to their family, even after divorce. The Quran so provides that “Mothers shall breastfeed their babies for two complete years, if a father desires that the term be completed. The father of the baby shall provide them food and clothes in the established manner. None shall be charged more than his capacity. No mother shall be prejudiced with respect to her child, nor father with respect to his. The same is the responsibility of them. If both spouses decide, by mutual consent and consultation, on weaning, there is no blame on either. If you want to have your babies breastfed by a foster mother you are not doing anything blame-worthy provided you pay to the fostermother what you had agreed to offer, in accordance with the established manner. Fear God and know that God is aware it what you are doing”. (Al-Bagarah, 233).

In an Islamic Society women also take part in the appointment of counselling and control officers responsible for the public affairs of society. This may be done either through the process of election or consultation. The account of the Shura process following Umar’s death firmly establishes this matter. Muslim ladies did actually participate in that general consultation. Ibn Katheer, the historian, told, “then Abdur Rahman bin Auf undertook to consult the people about (the candidates) Uthman bin Affan and Ali bin Abi Talib. He was collecting and collating the general opinion of the Muslims through their leaders. he consulted them singly as well as collectively; privately as well as publicly. He even reached to the Muslim ladies in their privacy”. (Al Bidayah Wa-‘Nihayah).
The tradition of early Muslim Society was for women to attend all public meetings and festivals. Authentic reports about life with Prophet (peace be upon him) give account of women going to attend the two Eid (festive days) prayers. Even those who were excused from prayer, would also come to attend the congregation. Hafsah, the Prophet’s wife (God bless her) is reported to have said: “We used to forbid young girls to go out to attend the Eid prayers. But a woman came to visit and stayed in Qasr Bani Khelf, and told about her sister, whose husband had participated in twelve military campaigns of the Prophet (peace be upon him), her sister took part in six thereof”. She said: “We treated the wounded and looked after the sick. I asked the Prophet (peace be upon him): would there be any harm in not going out if we do not have julbabs (wide loose gowns)?” The Prophet (peace be upon him) replied, “Let her friend lend her a julbab so that she may attend the blessed occasion and the preaching of Islam”. Hafsah went on: “when Umm Salma came I asked her (to confirm): ‘Did you hear the Prophet (peace be upon him)?’ she replied, ‘Yes indeed I heard him say: all girls, young, screened or in their monthly periods should go out to attend the Eid congregation and witness the blessedness and publicity of social Islam. The menstruating ladies should however stand by during the prayer'”. Hafsa asked: “The menstruating ladies too?” she replied: “Don’t you see that they attend the congregation in Arafa for pilgrimage?”. (Bukhari).
Another aspect of women in Apostolic society was revealed by an account of Sayidah Ayishah about how she attended a spectacle of the Ethiopians: “By God the Prophet was by my chamber’s door while the Ethiopians were showing their spear games in Al Haram. The Prophet (peace be upon him) covered me with his shawl so that I may too watch their feats. I was watching them from behind his shoulder. He would pose there for my sake till I choose to break off”. Ayishah suggests: “you should fully appreciate a young girl’s interest in fun”. (Bukhari).

Excepting those specific tasks of public life which are obligatory on men and only voluntary to women, male Muslims in an Islamic Society have no exclusive prerogative or specialisation.

They have no power or authority over women except in the context of conjugal relationship. That relationship itself is established and dissolved with the consent of the female party, and should be conducted in a spirit of mutual respect, consultation and conciliation. The man is in charge of the family, but that amounts only to responsibility for financial maintenance and authority for direction and discipline exercised in a reasonable manner. Both spouses should share in the management of family affairs, and have equal authority over their sons and daughters.

Public life is no stage where men alone can play. There is no segregation of sexes in public domains which call for joint efforts. Thus both men and women are supposed to participate in congregational prayers. The Prophet, (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: “Don’t stop women form going to mosques at night”. A son of Abdullab bin Umar, on hearing this statement, said to his father: “We would not allow women to go out of the house at night for fear of any abuses”. * Ibn-Umar * reprimanded his son: “I say the prophet (peace he upon him) said so, and you still say you won’t allow it”. (Muslim).

From the foregoing, it is clear that the Prophet’s directive is for women to go out publicly to frequent mosques even at night, and to attend and offer Eid prayers. It is also recognised that pilgrimage (Haj), despite its displacements and thick crowds, is a function performed in common by men and women. Some over-scrupulous Muslim rulers endeavoured to introduce some modification in this respect with a view of segregating men and women in the Tawaf (going round the holy Kabah). But scholars who upheld the Sunna and favour strict adherence to Tradition, opposed any change in the practice current in the Prophet’s own times. Consequently, the traditional practice of Tawaf in common remained established and the change fell through. That was when Muhammed bin Hisham, the governor of Mecca, stopped ladies performing tawaf alongside men. Ata, the famous scholar of tradition objected: “How do you stop them when the Prophet’s own wives did Tawaf of Kaba alongside men?” The practice had continued without any change even after the introduction of the restrictive regime imposed on the Prophet’s wives, although they used to steer clear of the men around them, while all other women used to mix with men and huddle to touch and kiss the Black Stone in the wall of Kabah (Bukhari). Educational assemblies, too were attended by men and women jointly. The Prophet (peace be upon him), in teaching the Muslims, used to address men and women together even where he was giving instruction, relating to conjugal matters. Once he was lecturing muslims after prayer about tales they would tell the morning following their conjugal activities. Abu Hurrairah is quoted to have reported this as follows: “The Prophet (peace be upon him) had just finished his prayer with us, when he directly turned and asked us to keep sitting, and then asked: ‘Is there amongst you any who would shut doors and draw curtains when he approaches his wife, but would later go out and tell every body how he did so and so?’ all men present kept silent. Then the Prophet (peace be upon him) turned to the ladies and said: “Does any one of you openly discuss her conjugal matters with other women?” A young lady in the audience, when she heard this, knelt up on one knee and craned her neck so that the Prophet (peace be upon him) might see her and hear her speak. She said: ‘Yes by God, all men discuss these matters among themselves and so do all women, too’. The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: ‘Do you know whom does one doing that compare to?’ ‘Indeed it is like two satanic couples who meet on a high street and indulge their sexual desire in full view of the people'”. (reported by Ahmed, Abu Dawwod, and Albazar).

In another mixed audience, a woman intervened during a sermon the Prophet (peace be upon him) was delivering to a congregation of Muslims by publicly asking: “Why do you reckon most women would go to hell?”. This was reported by Ibn-Umar who quoted the Prophet (peace be upon him) saying: “O women! Give alms, and beseech God excessively for his forgiveness, for I see that most of the inmates of hell will be from amongst you”. Some of the ladies present in the congregation asked: “What it was that made women outnumber the male inmates of hell?”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) replied: “Because you curse excessively and are ungrateful to your partners. I haven’t seen anything so deficient in wisdom and religion”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) replied: “The testimony of two women equals that of one man; further, she has to abstain from the prayer for days” (Meaning that limited experience and abstinence from prayer during her period may impinge on her proper conduct and judgement). (Muslim).
Separate meetings exclusively for ladies were sometimes convened, but that was for practical reasons, mostly the dominance of men, sitting close to the Prophet (peace be upon him) after prayer and the inability of women sitting behind to hear him well. Bukhari narrated, in a chapter titled, ‘Is a day set aside exclusively for the education of women?’, that women told the Prophet, “men have dominated us around you”, the Prophet (peace be upon him) promised to give them a separate day. He would meet them on the scheduled day and deliver his lecture and instruction. It is in such a session that he once told them: “Any woman who loses three children would find it a barrier from hell”. A woman said, “and what about two?” The Prophet (peace he upon him) replied, “even two”. (Bukhair).

On the authority of Ibn Abbas, Bukhari stated that the Prophet (peace be upon him) was on his way after delivering his Eid address and Bilal was with him. He felt that the ladies attending the congregation did not hear his lecture. He therefore went to preach to them especially and to ask them to give alms.

A woman is quite entitled to go out for any need. She may go to the market to do business or otherwise; even though this may entail someone inconveniencing her. After the Prophet’s wives were curtained away and segregated, the Prophet (peace be upon him) would still permit them to go out of their houses for their needs. Sayyidah Ayishah is quoted as saying that after the introduction of segregation “Saudah went out of her house to pursue some need. She was a bulky lady and anyone who knew her could easily recognise her. Umar bin Alkhatab saw her once and said, ‘O Saudah you are not unrecognisable to us. Just see how you have come out?’ when she heard that, she withdrew and returned. The Prophet (peace be upon him) was at that time in my (Ayishah’s) house for his dinner. Sauda entered and said to him, ‘O Prophet of God, I went out of my house for some need and Umar said to me so and so'” Sayyedah Ayishah Said, “Then revelation came from God and later, when it was over, the Prophet (peace be upon him) regained his hand and said to Sauda, ‘God has permitted you to go out of your house for your needs'”. (Bukhari).

The following verse of the Quran clearly bears out that ladies can go out of their houses: “O Prophet! tell your wives and daughters and the women of the believers to lower their outer garments on their persons. That is likely to allow them to be recognised and by consequence, not be molested, and God is most Forgiving and most kind”. (Al Ahzab, 59). The occasion for the revelation of these verses of the Quran was the fact that some rogue individuals would inconvenience ladies in the streets of Madinah. Explaining the meaning of: “To lower their outer garments on their person”, Mujahid (a famous early authority on the exegesis of the Quran) said, “they covered themselves with their outer garments so that it is known that they are free-born women of good social standing and no depraved person may level at them undue words or suspicions”.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) taught Muslims, if they had to sit by the road, to lower their gaze as women pass by. Abu Saeed Al-khudri quoted the Prophet (peace be upon him) as saying, “try to avoid sitting by the roads and paths”. The Muslims said, “O Prophet! sitting by the roads is unavoidable for us”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) then said, “If you insist on sitting there, then give the highway its due”. The Muslims asked, “what is that?” the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “lowering of your gaze, desisting from hurting any one, exchange of greetings, asking others to do good, and warning others off anything foul”. (Muslim).
Women can engage in business and commerce. Take the case of Qailah Umm-Bani Atmar, one of the merchant ladies. She said, “I am a woman who buys and sells”. (Al Isabah). Umar Ibn Al Khattab entrusted the supervision of administrative market affairs to Shaff’a bint Abdullah bin Abd Shams. Umar used to seek her counsel, pay due regard to her and hold her in high esteem. (Al-Isabah). In this regard the dialogue between Abu Al-Yasar and a woman who came to purchase dates from him, is also significant to show how women went about shopping (Trimithi).

Islam does not call for segregation between men and women. A woman may, therefore, receive the family guests, serve and entertain them. Consider the story of Ibraheem (Abraham) (peace be upon him), when he received the angels in the guise of (human) guests who told him, “We were sent to the folk of Lot”. And his wife, standing by, laughed. They gave her good tidings of the birth of Isaac and after Isaac of Jacob. She said, “O woe to me, shall I bear a child when l am an old woman and this is my husband an old man? This is a strange thing?” (Hud, 70-72)

There were some elderly ladies whom the Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit, regularly. He might take meals in their places and pray there, and when they fell sick he would call upon them to console them. Take, for instance, Umm-Aiman. She migrated from Mekkah to Madinah walking all the way on foot with none to keep her company and in extremely hot weather. The prophet (peace be upon him) used to honour her with his social visits (Seerat Ibn-Hisham).

Khaulah bint Qais is another such lady. According to Al Tabrani, Ibn-Harith heard Khaula hint Qais say: “the Prophet (peace be upon him) and I took meals in the same dish”. (AI-Isabah). Al-Shaffa bint Abdullah was one of the wise and prominent ladies of Madinah. The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit her and took his mid-day nap in her house. She arranged a bed and a sheet for him to sleep in. (Al-Isabah)

Al-Shaykhan (i.e Bukkari and Muslim) give an account of Maleekah Al Ansariah on the authority of Anas who said that his grandmother Maleekah invited the Prophet to meals which she herself had prepared. The same tradition relates how the Prophet (peace be upon him) offered his prayers in their houses: Anas said, “An orphan and I would stand behind him, and the old lady behind us”. (Al-Isabah)

Lubabah bint Al-Harith, it is stated, was one of the first ladies after Sayyedah Khadijah, to embrace Islam. The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit her and take his mid-day nap in her house. Umm-Waraga was a lady that the Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit. The Prophet (peace be upon him) allowed her to pray at home and to lead her staff, male and female, in prayer (Abu Dawoud). It was she who, when the Prophet (peace be upon him) conducted the battle of Badr, requested him to allow her to accompany him so that she might treat the patients and that perhaps God might bless her with martyrdom. (Al-Isabah).
Fatimah bint Asad bin Hashim was a very pious lady. The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit her and take his mid-day nap in her house. (Tabaqat)

Umm al Fadhl bint Al-Harith was the first woman to embrace Islam after Sayyedah Khadijah. The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to visit her and take his mid-day nap in her house. (Tabqat). All these were women of social distinction worthy of the Prophet’s consideration.

Even a bride may undertake to serve guests personally. Sahal bin S’ad Al Ansari stated that Abu Saeed invited the Prophet (peace be upon him) to his wedding feast. His bride Umm-Saeed was the one who prepared the meals and served the guests too. She put some dates in a stone vessel to soak in water. When the Prophet (peace be upon him) had finished the meal she crushed the dates with her own hand and gave the prophet (peace be upon him) to drink, as a special favour. (The Shaikhan, Bukhari and Muslim).
The practice of family visits was also common in the early period of Islam. For instance, the visits of the Prophet (peace be upon him) to Al Rabee bint Muawiz and her husband Ilyas bin Al Kabeer, were well-known. Abu Dawoud, At-Tirmithy and Ibn-Majah quoted a number of traditions on the authority of Ibn-Aqeel. Al Rabee bint Muawiz gives a description of the Prophet’s ablution. She said that the Prophet (peace be upon him) used to come to them and say, “please pour water so that I may do the ablution (wadu)”. (Al-Isabah)

So far as the familiar Hijab is concerned, it refers to the special regulation pertaining to the Prophet’s wives due to their status and situations. They occupied a position different from all other women, their responsibility is thereby stiffened. God has ordained that their reward as well as punishment be double that for any other woman. “O wives of the Prophet whoever of you commits a vile deed will have her punishment doubled. And that, for God, is quite easy. And whosoever of you serves God and his Prophet devoutly and acts righteously, we shall give her double reward. And we have prepared for her honourable sustenance in the hereafter”. (Al-Ahzab, 30-31).

The verses of the same Sura ordained that the wives of the Prophet (peace upon him) draw a curtain (to ensure privacy in the Prophet’s room which naturally attracted many visitors of all sorts), and that they dress up completely without showing any part of their bodies including face and hands to any man; though all other Muslim women were exempted from these restrictions. Thus the Quran goes: “O you who believe don’t enter the Prophet’s homes except when you are invited for a meal and don’t come too early awaiting its preparation. But when you are invited, do enter (the prophet’s home). When you have finished the meal, disperse, without (lingering) for familiar talk. Such behaviour used to inconvenience the Prophet who was too embarrassed shy (to ask you to disperse). But God is not embarrassed to say the truth. And when you ask the Prophet’s women something ask, them from behind a curtain. This is purer for your hearts as well as for theirs. It is not proper for you to annoy the Prophet. None of you will at all marry the Prophet’s wives after his death. God considers that an enormously great sin”. (Al-Ahzab, 53).
The text of this commandment is evidently restricted to the Prophet’s house, dialogue with his wives, and impermissibility of their remarriage after his death. The circumstances surrounding the revelation of the commandment confirm that the provisions of the commandment are so confined. An authentic tradition demonstrates that this commandment vindicated a specific suggestion advanced by Umar bin al Khattab. Sayyedha Aishah is quoted as saying that Umar bin Al Khattab asked the Prophet (peace be upon him) to confine his wives. She said, “but the Prophet (peace he upon him) did not do so. Then God sent down the verses relating to confinement”. (Bukhari). Anas reported that Umar said: “My Lord granted me three wishes: I asked the Prophet (peace be upon him), ‘how about adopting the spot of Prophet Ibraheem for prayer?’ and later the verse, ‘Adopt the spot of Ibraheem for prayer’ was sent down. I said to the Prophet (peace be upon him), ‘O Prophet the pious as well as the dissolute enter your house to meet your wives. How about ordering them to withdraw themselves?’ Subsequently the verses of confinement were sent down. Similarly the wives of the Prophet (peace be upon him) conspired, out of jealousy, against the Prophet (peace be upon him), and I said to them what was later sent down the verse, ‘God may, if he divorced you, give him in exchange wives better than you'”. (Al Tahreem, 5) (Musand Al-Imam Ahmed Ibn-Hambal).

The verses may directly concern the prolonged stay of the guests who came to attend the wedding to Zainab bint Jahash. Ibn-shihab reports that Anas bin Malik gave him the following account: “When the Prophet (peace be upon him) arrived in Madinah, I was a boy of ten. And I spent 10 years serving him. None knows more than myself about the revelation related to the confinement of his wives. Ubai bin K’ab used to ask me about the Prophet’s marriage to Zainab bint Jahash. The Prophet (peace be upon him), as bridegroom, invited the people in the morning to feast. Most took the meal and went away. A group of them, however, remained with the Prophet (peace be upon him) and stayed rather long. The Prophet (peace be upon him) stood up and went out. I followed him out so that they might likewise go. The Prophet (peace be upon him) walked up to the threshold of Sayyedah Ayishah’s room, and thought that by that time they might have left. But when he returned, with me after him, to Zainab’s, that group was still sitting and had not dispersed. The Prophet (peace be upon him) returned, and again I followed, till he reached threshold of Sayyedah Aiashah’s room that they might go. It was only when we returned that they had just gone out. As a consequence the verses relating to confinement were revealed. A curtain was then lowered between me and the Prophet’s private quarters”. (Bukhari).

A further confirmation of the foregoing conclusion in respect of the scope of the confinement rule is that those women who were separated from the Prophet (peace be upon him) before consummation of marriage, were not given the title of Mothers of the Believers nor was confinement imposed on them. Some did, in fact, remarry after the Prophet’s death. Take, for instance, Asma bint Al Numan. There is consensus over the fact that the Prophet (peace be upon him) did marry her; but there is some controversy about the circumstances surrounding his separation from her. Some said that she remarked, “I seek refuge in God from you”. The prophet (peace be upon him) said, “You sought sure refuge and God has granted you protection from me”. He, therefore, divorced her. (Al-Isabah). Another example is the case of Qeelah bint Qais whom the Prophet (peace be upon him) married in the tenth year A.H., shortly before his death,and died soon after. He did not receive her; and the marriage was not consummated. It is also said that he married her only two months before his death. It is said that he married her during the illness that led to his death. It is reported that the Prophet’s instructions were that if she liked she might be confined and abstain from remarriage. Otherwise she might marry whomsoever she liked. She opted to marry Ikrimah in Hadramaut. When the news of the remarriage reached Abu Bakr, he threatened to burn their house. but Umar told him that she was not reckoned among the Mothers of the Believers, and that the Prophet (peace be upon him) did not consummate his marriage with her, nor was she confined. (AI-Isabah).

The commandments regarding confinement were sent down in the month of Dhul-Qaidah of the fifth year of Hijrah. It did not affect the position of the generality of Muslim ladies.

Life in Islam is oriented towards God. If it allows men to come into contact with women that is indeed a test. A Muslim should make such association an opportunity for furthering the aims of worship and gratitude to God. At least he should observe the limits of what is permissible in that association. There can be no legitimacy in exploiting the relations between persons of opposite sexes as an occasion for illicit sexual enjoyment in contravention of God’s commands and in deviation from the proper system for conjugal relations. There is no scope in religion for licentious sexual pleasure, which reduces man to a situation of slavery to passions, instead of to God, or to which man dedicated his time and exploits his total energies as ultimate purpose in life. There is no room for unbridled and uncontrolled passions outside the bounds of marriage.

Fornication, therefore is strictly forbidden; and as commanded by the Quran, no man is allowed to approach a woman with that intention. “Don’t get close to fornication. it is indeed atrocious and a bad way”. (Al-Isra, 32).

One should even avoid any perverse sight or touch that may excite sex. Abu Saeed Al-Khudri reported that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “No man should look at another man’s private parts, nor a woman at another woman’s. No man or woman shall rub skin with another in the same dress”. (Abu Dawoud, At-Tirmithy, Muslim).

It is not permissible for a man and a woman not tied by marriage to seek privacy – the two of them alone hidden from the view of other people. Indeed in such a situation the temptation of sex would be dominant and would engross one’s thoughts, whereas in larger company one is more likely to be oblivious of sex and preoccupied by the pursuits and affairs of the community. Ibn-Abbas says that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “Keep it in mind that in the absence of a mahram (real father, real brothers, real uncles, etc. to whom a women can not be lawfully married) no man shall be alone with a woman”. (Bukhari and Muslim). Abduallah bin Amr bin Al-A’as said a number of men of the tribe of Bani Hashim came to see Asma bint Amees. In the meantime Abu Bakr Also came. She was at that time his wife. When Abu Bakr saw those people, he did not approve of their being in his house. He told the Prophet (peace be upon him) about it and said, “I did not see anything wrong”, the Prophet said, “God has acquitted her of that suspicion”. Then the Prophet ascended the pulpit and said, “In the absence of her man, no woman shall meet a man but in the presence of another man or two”. (Muslim)

In public, however, man and woman can confer privately at a distance from others. Anas reports that a woman who was slightly abnormal said to the Prophet (peace be upon him) “O Messenger of God! I need you for something”. The prophet said, “O mother of such and such, look which way you want to go, that I may arrange your need”. He went with her along some path till all what she required was over. (Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawoud)

The story of Moses (peace be upon him) and the two daughters of Shuaib, as narrated by the Quran, is very instructive: “and when he came onto the water of Madian, he found there a group of people watering, and he found apart of them two women holding back. He said: ‘what is the matter?’ They said: ‘we cannot water until all the shepherds leave, and our father is an old man.’ He watered for them and withdrew to the shade… shortly afterwards, one of the two maidens came to him and said: ‘my father calls you that he might reward you for watering for us….’ One said, ‘O my father, hire him, for the best you can hire is one who is strong and trustworthy'”. (Al-Qasas, 22-28)

A man should not gaze at a women nor a woman at a man so fixedly that temptation is stimulated. Instead, whenever any such thing strikes the mind, one must desist from looking on. “Tell the believers to lower their looks and guard their private organs. This is purer for them. God is fully aware of what they are doing. And ask believing women to lower their looks and to guard their private organs….” (An Nur, 30-31)

In the traditions, Jabir bin Abduallah is reported to have said, “I asked the Prophet (peace be upon him) about looking at some woman by chance, the Prophet (peace be upon him) told me to divert my looks”.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) advised Ali, “O Ali, you must not gaze at a woman. You are allowed the first look but not the subsequent”. But Ali’s report does not mean that looking at a person of the opposite sex is absolutely forbidden. It is only when one seeks sexual pleasure or finds and relishes it. Indeed, in the model society of Islam, Muslims used to assemble freely and frequently; they were mostly acquainted with each other, men and women; they conversed and interacted intensively. But all those activities, were undertaken in a spirit of innocence and in the context of a virtuous society.

The meaning behind the prohibition of some looks at women is borne out by the correlation between such looks and sexual intercourse: “Allah decreed for every human being his unavoidable share of sexual intercourse. The eye partakes of that by looks, the tongue by speech the soul aspires and craves, and the genital organs fulfil or deny the final act”. (Bukhari and Abu Dawooed).
Similarly Abdullah bin Abbas reports that the Prophet was riding a camel with Al-Fadhl, Abdullah’s brother, behind him. A beautiful woman came to ask the Prophet about the Haj of her father. Al Fadhl began to stare at her; her beauty impressed him a lot. The Prophet (peace be upon him) having noticed this while Al Fadhl was busy looking, put his hand behind and turned his face away from her hither and thither as she went along with them. Al Abbas said to the Prophet, “you are twisting the neck of your nephew!” The Prophet replied, “I noticed that both the boy and the girl were young; and I feared that Satan may intervene”. (At-Tirmithy and Bukhari).

When assembled men and women must not be crammed in such a manner that breaths and bodies are very close to each other. If the practical exigencies demand, they may, however, get closer, as for instance during Haj. And wherever there are men and women in homes, streets, meetings or public occasions, it is advisable that some distance between the two sexes be maintained. It is on the basis of the same principle that men and women occupy conspicuously separate rows in prayers. During the prayer, sitting or standing, people take up their position in a very compact manner; and while praying one should be completely detached from everything that may divert one from attending fully to God. The Prophet (peace be upon him) designated a door exclusively for ladies to enter and leave the mosque. Ibn-Umar reports that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “may we restrict this door for ladies only”. (Abu Dawoud).

Similarly, on the highway, men and women must maintain some distance. Hamza bin Sayyed Al Ansari cited his father as saying that he heard the Prophet (peace be upon him) ask the ladies, “you stay apart, for you can not walk in the middle of the road; you bear to the sides of the road”. “A Lady”, he added, “would walk so close to the walls along the road that her clothes would touch the walls”. (Abu Dawoud). The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to defer his departure so that the ladies might leave the mosque first. (Bukhair). Umm-Salama reported that when the Prophet (peace be upon him) finished with his prayer, the women would immediately get up from their places to leave, while he would remain in his place for a short while, and then would rise to go.
The dress of a man or a woman should be modest. By no gesture, word or appearance should man or woman deliberately tempt the other. God says: women shall not show their adornment except what is naturally visible. They should draw their scares on their bosoms. And they must not show their adornment except to their husbands, or their fathers or the fathers of their husbands, or their sons or the sons of their husbands, or their brothers or the sons of their brothers or the sons of their sisters or their women slaves, or male servants uninterested in physical needs, or small children who are not sexually aware. Nor will they kick with their feet, to announce whatever is invisible of their adornment. (An-Nur, 31). “0 Prophet tell your wives and your daughters and wives of the believers to lower their outer garments on their persons. That is likely to make them known, and, as a consequence, not be molested. And God is Most Forgiving and Most Merciful”. (Al-Ahaab, 59).

The Prophet (peace be upon him) directed that excepting face and hands no other part of a woman’s body should be exhibited. Sayyedah Ayishah is said to have reported that Asma bint Abu Bakr came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) wearing a dress made of thin cloth. The Prophet (peace be upon him) turned his face away and said to her: “when a girl matures it is not appropriate for her to show but such and such”, pointing towards his face and hands. Abu Dawoud quoted this tradition, And the majority of Muslims have accepted it in practice.

Thus temptation is the basic criterion on which these rulings rest. “For women of advanced age who do not expect to be married, there is no harm if they set aside their outer garments provided they do not play up their charms. But it is better for them if they abstain from doing so. And God is All-seeing and All-knowing”. (An-Nor 60). The Prophet (peace be upon him) prohibited women from passing by men after perfuming themselves. he warned women in these words: “after using scents no lady should attend Isha prayer with us” (Muslim). Abu Musa Al Ashari reports that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “any woman who, after perfuming herself, passes by the people so that they may find her smell, is a fallen woman”. (Musnad Imam Ahmed). The Prophet (peace be upon him) warned against women who walk swinging ostentatiously and temptingly: “two categories of the inmates of hell I did not see before: a group of people holding whips resembling cow tails lashing at people, and women, half dressed and half naked, walking swingingly to all allure, with their heads like inclined humps of camels. They shall never enter Heaven nor get the inclined nor get the smell thereof, even though its smell can be felt from such and such distance”. (Muslim)

Any relationship or situation which may be instrumental to temptation or illegal sexual contact between men and women, is thus not permissible. God says, “don’t approach fornication. It is indeed a vile deed and what an evil practice it is”. (Al Isra 32) That is the standard which determines cases which we did not mention. Thus Islam tolerates that one may greet women or talk to them in decent and chaste language and with good intent. The Prophet used to do so. Asma bint-Yazeed reported that one day the Prophet (peace be upon him) passed through the mosque where a group of women were sitting. He greeted them by waving his hand. (At-Tirmithy). In the chapter Kitab ul-adab of his collection of traditions, Abu Dawoud gave the following account on the authority of Asma: “the Prophet (peace be upon him) passed by us and greeted us”. Imam Bukhari has given a chapter in his collection of authentic traditions under the title, “Greeting Women by Men”. Ibn-Hazim reported that his father cited Sahal, why so? he said, an aged lady used to send me some goods. She would take the roots of salaq (a salad) and put them in a pan, and then prepare some barley bread. After offering Juma prayer we would go and greet her and she would serve us those dishes, which gave us a lot of joy. On Fridays we always took our meal and mid-day nap after offering Juma prayer. (Bukhari)

Asma bint-Yazeed narrated that, “the Prophet (peace be upon him) passed by us, the women, and greeted us”. (Al-Tirimizy)
When greeting a lady, shaking hands in a spontaneous manner may be permissible, especially if it is a customary practice in a chaste setting. One may find in Islamic texts strong admonition against touching strange women. But the word “touch” or the like is, in this context, a euphemism for sexual intercourse.

Whenever women came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) for the oath of allegiance, it is reported that he would not shake hands with them. This is obviously a reservation unique to him. It is quoted by Al Bukhari that the Prophet (peace by upon him) said: “I don’t shake hands with women”. Other reports say that the Prophet (peace be upon him) did shake hands with the ladies covering the hand with a garment. (Abu Dawoud cited that on the authority of Al Shaabi and Abdul Razzaq). Sometimes the Prophet (peace be upon him) would deputise Umar for that function (Al Tabrani).

So long as the conditions already mentioned are observed, family gatherings and joint meals, both at home or elsewhere are permissible. Abu Hurairah (may God be bless him) narrated that a man came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said, “I am completely exhausted with hunger”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) sent a message to one of his wives. She told him, “by God, who sent you with the truth, I don’t have anything except water”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) then sent the message to another of his wives. She, too, told the same thing. It was the same with all the rest of his wives: “By God, who sent you with the truth, I don’t have anything except water”. “By God, who sent you with the truth, I don’t have anything except water”. The Prophet (peace be upon him) then said, “whosoever takes this man as his guest God will grant him mercy”. An Ansari of Medina stood up and said, “O Messenger of God, I shall take him as my guest”. He, then took him to his dwelling, and said to his wife, “Do you have something?” “Nothing except the meal for my children”, she replied. He said to her, “you distract them with something: when our guest arrives, put out the lamp, and show him that we. too, are eating”. He narrated how they all sat down and the guest took his meal. Next day when the Ansari went to the Prophet (peace be upon him) the latter said to him, “God appreciated so much the treatment you extended to your guest last night”. (Muslim)

More than anybody else, it is permissible for those who are seeking each other’s hand in marriage or are divorced, to see or talk to each other. Mughirah bin Shubah stated that he proposed to a woman for marriage. The Prophet (peace be upon him) told him, “Have a look at her. that some affection might develop between you two”. Mughirah went to the girl’s parents and told them about the Prophet’s instruction. It was as if they were reluctant. The lady, who was in her private room. having overheard this, called out, “If the Prophet has ordered you to see me, then do so”. Mughirah said: “I saw her and married her”. (Ahmed, Ibn-Majah, At-Tirmithy, Ibn-Habban and Al-Darimi).

A case in point is the famous story of Mughith who used to go after his ex-wife Burairah through the streets of Madinah. He would try to appease her with tears flowing from his eyes in order to bring her back; but she would refuse to do so. When Burairah was set free, her husband, a negro, was a slave of Bani al Mughirah. “By God” Ibn Abbas said, “I still recall how he followed her all over the streets of Madinah with his beard bathed in tears trying to please her in vain”. The prophet (peace be upon him) himself tried to intercede but the girl declined as long as the Prophet (peace be upon him) did not order her to reconcile (At-Tirmithy).
The application of the standard of temptation depends subjectively on what a person finds in his soul – that is what he experiences by way of feeling in the case. This is naturally a function of his religious education and integrity. Objectively, it would depend on the seriousness of the affair in any association of men and women such as would distract them from thinking of sex, and partly on the innocence of the particular social context.

The juridical principle is sound: that the avenues and approaches of wrong-doing should be closed by barring acts innocent in themselves for fear of what might ensue. But over-caution may inhibit legitimate conduct on the pretext that it exposes to the risk of temptation and vice. This may lead to the distortion of the general social system of Islam which is based on the full participation of men and women in everyday life with piety and chastity. Indeed, segregation and isolation may well protect a woman from temptation, but it essentially denies her the benefits of the communal life of Muslims.

It denies and abrogates her legitimate role in the social process of cooperation in the promotion of knowledge and good work, in the mutual counselling of Muslims to do all that is beneficial and avoid all that is objectionable, in their solidarity for the maintenance of their well-being and the defence of their establishment. God says, “The believing men and women, are associates and helpers of each other. They (collaborate) to promote all that is beneficial and discourage all that is evil; to establish prayers and give alms, and to obey God and his Messenger. Those are the people whom God would grant mercy. Indeed God is Mighty and Wise”. (Al-Taubah, 71) The benefits drawn from that communal life of Muslims more than outweigh any preventive considerations in the segregation of sexes in ways not ordained or clearly implied in the formal text of the Sharia.